Evidence of diet, deification, and death within ancient Egyptian mummified animals

Abstract

The clues to life and death of mummified animals can remain hidden beneath their wrappings. Developments in non-invasive imaging have enabled detailed study of their internal structures. Laboratory-based X-ray microcomputed tomography (microCT) and focussed imaging protocols permit smaller mummified remains, such as animals, to be studied at higher resolution. In this study, we use microCT to image three different animal mummies. Revealing the internal structures provides insights into their biography, the conditions in which they were kept, complex mummification practices, possible causes of death, and subsequent handling damage. Thousands of years after the production of these mummified animals, the X-ray microCT technique facilitates new investigations, revealing 'harder' skeletal structures, mummification materials, and even desiccated soft tissues. Potential evidence for an 'opening of the mouth' procedure was found in a snake, along with indicators of the poor conditions in which the snake was kept when alive, leading to dehydration. Examination of a cat mummy revealed it was less than five months old and had its neck purposefully broken. It was also possible to identify a bird mummy to species level from the X-ray data. Improved understanding of animal mummification through scientific imaging can thus inform conservation and understanding of past human-animal relationships. Ancient Egyptians mummified their human dead to ensure their rebirth in the afterlife. Human mummification is known throughout the Pharaonic period. In addition to humans, animals were mummified, including cats, ibis, hawks, snakes, crocodiles and dogs. Ikram 1,2 has suggested that mummified animal remains can be divided into six categories: {1} pets buried with their owner; {2} victual mummies buried with the human to provide food in the afterlife; {3} sacred animals which were worshipped during their lifetime; {4} votive offerings which depicted the gods and were placed in temples as offerings; {5} false/amalgam; and {6} other. Votive offerings are by far the most common animal mummies. Their production began in earnest in the Late Period (672-332 BC) and continued into the Roman Period, at least through to the fourth century AD, when they number in the millions 3. Votive offerings were given to gods, with particular animals associated with specific deities. Gods could also be symbolised as animals, such as the goddess Bastet, who could be depicted as a cat or other feline, or a human with feline head; and the god Horus who was often depicted as a hawk or falcon 1,4,5. Mummified animals were purchased by visitors to temples, who, it has been suggested, would offer them to the gods, in a similar way that candles may be offered in churches today. Egyptologists have also suggested that the mummified votive animals were meant to act as messengers between people on earth and the gods 1,6. The animal mummification 'industry' required high production volumes, necessitating significant infrastructure, resources, and staffing of farms that rea...

Crocodile Rock! A Bioarchaeological Study of Ancient Egyptian Reptile Remains from the National Museum of Lithuania

“…Animal mummies have been investigated for centuries, and are unique in that they open a window into past religion, food, and even affection (McKnight et al, 2018;Ikram, Iskander, 2002). The scientific assessment of this valuable bioarchaeological resource, which dates from the Late to the Roman Empire periods (circa 664 BC -AD 395), can provide information on their nature, their manufacture, and even on the pathological conditions the animal suffered over its lifespan (Ikram, 2005a;2005b;Atherton-Woolham, McKnight, 2014;McKnight et al, 2015;Richardin et al, 2017;Johnston et al, 2020;Tamburini et al, 2021). In particular, crocodile mummies appear to be of great interest because they have been less studied as compared to other animals (De Cupere et al, 2023).…”

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