Evidence for a double mutualistic interaction between a lizard and a Mediterranean gymnosperm,Ephedra fragilis

Abstract

An increasing number of double mutualisms (i.e. two interacting species benefiting each other in two different functions, e.g. pollination and seed dispersal) have been reported, mainly from island ecosystems, although we still lack much information on how effective such species are in both processes. Here, we assessed the pollination effectiveness of a double mutualism between an ancient Mediterranean gymnosperm, Ephedra fragilis, and a lizard, Podarcis lilfordi. On the one hand, we assessed the lizard contribution to different fitness measures (seed set and germination success), relative to that of insects and the wind effect; on the other, we determined the lizards’ seed removal rate (i.e. the quantity component of seed dispersal effectiveness). In both processes, we further tested for differences in their contributions among male, female and juvenile lizards. Ephedra fragilis showed to be mostly anemophilous, lizards and insects playing only a minor role on seed set. However, lizards qualitatively contributed to pollination success, as seeds coming from lizard-pollinated cones germinated at higher rates than those pollinated by wind or insects, although this was detected only for small seeds (<8 mg). The plant produced a low seed set (c. 23 %), which was compensated by a high seed germinability (c. 70 %). Adult male lizards were those most implicated in pollination, quantitatively more important than insects, and in seed dispersal. This work, thus, reports the importance of a lizard species in one of the few double mutualisms found in the World involving a gymnosperm, and it represents the first documentation of a double mutualism in the Mediterranean region. Our findings further contribute to highlight the role of both inter- and intraspecific differences in the effectiveness of mutualistic interactions.

Potential role of lava lizards as pollinators across the Galápagos Islands

“…There-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 . At least on some oceanic islands with depauperate pollinator faunas, lizards have been reported to contribute to pollination success (Olesen & Valido 2003;Fuster & Traveset 2019). If effective transfer of pollen onto stigmas results in pollination, M. habellii on Marchena and M. pacificus on Pinta would act as both pollinators and seed dispersers of Cordia leucophlyctis and Bursera graveolens, respectively (see Hervías-Parejo et al 2018).…”

A Review on WorldwideEphedraHistory and Story: From Fossils to Natural Products Mass Spectroscopy Characterization and Biopharmacotherapy Potential

“…Macrofossils of female cones were found in the Early Cretaceous of South America [73,74], Mongolia [75,76], and adjacent Northeast China [60,[77][78][79][80]. Early Ephedra might have transformed bracts of female cones into vivid color to assist seed dispersal by birds, wind, or seed-caching rodents resulting in a wide intercontinental distribution [59,81,82].…”

Ephedra as a gymnosperm evo‐devo model lineage

“…Ephedra have genomes half the size of Pinus and diploids have the next smallest genome for a gymnosperm (8–9 Gb; Ickert‐Bond et al, 2020), after Gnetum (2–4 Gb, Wan et al, 2018). Ephedra comes with a strong phylogenetic and ecological framework, unusually abundant polyploidization events for a gymnosperm (Ickert‐Bond et al, 2020), and a rich diversity of pollination systems (Bolinder et al, 2016) and seed dispersal strategies tied to its evolutionary history (Fuster & Traveset, 2019; Hollander et al, 2010; Loera et al, 2015). Nevertheless, uncovering genes that underlie key innovations in this lineage will also require a strong genomic toolkit, including a solid reference genome, the ability to grow axenic cultures in the laboratory and a transformation protocol for functional studies, all in a feasible time‐frame.…”

“…Fleshy bracts characterize the seed cones of 38 species of Ephedra dispersed by birds and lizards (Figures 3a, 3c, 3e,f, and 3h‐j; Fuster & Traveset, 2019; Hollander et al, 2010; Loera et al, 2015). A few North American endemics have membranous or coriaceous bracts lacking wings and are dispersed by seed‐caching rodents (Figures 3b and 3g; Hollander et al, 2010), and fewer species have dry, winged bracts (Figure 3d) and are anemochorous (Stapf, 1889; Figure 4).…”