Evaluation of the fate of perfluoroalkyl compounds in wastewater treatment plants

Occurrence of organic microcontaminants in the wastewater treatment process. A mini review

“…According to Heidler and Halden [88], several mass balances performed for fluorochemicals also reflect a net mass flow increase at the WWTP effluents. However, this family of compounds have dissimilar behaviour among them, depending on the functional groups [90]. For instance, some authors reported that perfluorooctanesulfonic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) levels have a decreasing tendency after treatment in most WWTPs, whilst perfluorooctanoic acid or perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) showed an inverse pattern [89][90][91].…”

“…However, this family of compounds have dissimilar behaviour among them, depending on the functional groups [90]. For instance, some authors reported that perfluorooctanesulfonic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) levels have a decreasing tendency after treatment in most WWTPs, whilst perfluorooctanoic acid or perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) showed an inverse pattern [89][90][91]. According to Guo et al [90], this could be due to the higher organic carbon-normalised distribution coefficient of perfluoroalkylsulfonate (PFASs) in comparison with the carboxylate analog, a sign of preferential uptake of PFASs by the sludge, which seems to be a key mechanism in the process.…”

“…For instance, some authors reported that perfluorooctanesulfonic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) levels have a decreasing tendency after treatment in most WWTPs, whilst perfluorooctanoic acid or perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) showed an inverse pattern [89][90][91]. According to Guo et al [90], this could be due to the higher organic carbon-normalised distribution coefficient of perfluoroalkylsulfonate (PFASs) in comparison with the carboxylate analog, a sign of preferential uptake of PFASs by the sludge, which seems to be a key mechanism in the process. Although Zhou et al [92] state that, in terms of electrostatic interaction, PFOS and PFOA would suffer repulsion, making their adsorption impossible on activated sludge, they also consider that some cations present in the sludge (e.g.…”

Field study on the uptake and translocation of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in biosolids-amended soils

“…Sewage sludge is widely recognized as a major sink of some PFAAs (Sun et al, 2011;Guo et al, 2010;Higgins et al, 2005). Higgins et al (2005) reported that the concentrations of PFAAs in domestic sludge ranged from 5 to 152 ng/g for total perfluorocarboxylates and 55e3370 ng/g for total perfluoroalkyl sulfonyl-based chemicals.…”

Survey of two perfluorinated organic compounds (PFOA and PFHxA) in water and biota surrounding a polyfluorinated chemical plant

“…PFCs are suspected to be carcinogenic and may also act as endocrine disruptors (White et al 2011). In an effort to better understand the environmental and organismal impacts of such compounds, many studies have assessed contamination in water supplies (Post et al 2009), wastewater treatment plants Guo 2010), and a wide variety of environmental samples including fresh and marine waters (Kallenborn et al 2004, Yamashita et al 2005, Tanaka et al 2006, Skutlarek et al 2006, deVoogt et al 2006, Weremiuk et al 2006, Loos et al 2007, stormwater (Murakami et al 2009a, Xiao et al 2011, Nguyen et al 2011, groundwaters (Shultz et al 2004, Murakami et al 2009b and biota ranging from small invertebrates (vanLeeuwen et al 2006, Gulkowska et al 2006, Nakata et al 2006) to large mammals in a wide variety of habitats (Giesy and Kannan 2001). Few studies have examined a wide variety of sample types (municipal waters, natural waters and biota) collected within and near a single manufacturing plant.…”