Evaluation of the Antidiarrheal and Antioxidant Effects of Some Chewing Sticks Commonly Used for Oral Hygiene in Ghana

Abstract

Microbial etiology of diarrhea is a significant cause of death, especially in children in developing countries. The presence of microbes that are resistant to current treatment options for diarrhea suggests the need to find newer antimicrobial agents for treatment. Therefore, this study focused on investigating the antimicrobial effect of some Ghanaian chewing sticks commonly used for oral hygiene, Azadirachta indica, Garcinia afzelii, and Garcinia kola, against selected diarrhea-causing organisms. From the stem and bark of each plant, 70% methanolic extract was experimented on Salmonella and Shigella species, namely, Shigella sonnei, Shigella flexeneri, Salmonella typhinirium enterica, Salmonella typhi attenuated, and Klebsiella oxytoca for microbial susceptibility using the agar well diffusion method. Additionally, the antioxidant profile of the methanolic extracts were investigated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, 2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic) acid (ABTS) scavenging activities, and ferric-reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) assays, while the total polyphenolic content was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteau reagent. G. afzelii and A. indica stem demonstrated the highest antimicrobial effect, inhibiting the growth of all test organisms. Additionally, the extracts demonstrated high antioxidant potential and were found to possess significant amounts of phenolic compounds. Therefore, methanolic extracts of G. afzelii and A. indica stem are promising candidates for the identification of safe novel compounds to mitigate diarrheal diseases.

The Antimicrobial Potential of the Neem Tree Azadirachta indica

“…and Shigella spp. that have been tested, which includes more than a dozen multidrug-resistant isolates from patients suffering from typhoid fever complications, are susceptible to seed, bark, and leaf extracts of neem from either ethanol, methanol, or acetone extraction; in some cases, the activity of neem extract was also found to be greater than that of gentamycin, erythromycin, and other plants used in traditional medicine ( Mahfuzul Hoque et al, 2007 ; Susmitha et al, 2013 ; Tesso et al, 2015 ; Melese et al, 2016 ; Al Akeel et al, 2017 ; Panchal et al, 2020 ; Essuman et al, 2021 ). Similarly, dried leaf, seed, and bark neem extracts in any of the three previously mentioned solvents have significant antibacterial activity against E. coli , with the methanolic extract of neem seeds demonstrating the greatest level of activity ( Susmitha et al, 2013 ; Sharma and Nupur, 2014 ; Melese et al, 2016 ).…”

Molecular screening of chewing sticks and sponges found on the ghanaian local market for diarrhoea-causing microbes- a pilot study

“…The most common types of traditional teeth cleaning agents in Ghana are the chewing sticks, made commonly from plants such as Garcinia mannii (Sokodua) and Azadirachta indica (Neem tree), and chewing sponges (locally called Sawere by Akans) made from Acacia kamerunensis (Debrah, 2022;Mensah et al, 2017). These chewing sticks and sponges have been shown to have several beneficial properties including antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties and the ability to remove dental plaques and carries (Akaji & Otakhoigbogie, 2020;Essuman et al, 2021). There is generally little to no awareness about microbial contamination of toothbrushes and oral care products as a result of poor storage conditions during their marketing and usage.…”

“…Diarrhoea refers to a medical condition where an individual passes three or more loose, watery stools per day (Manetu et al, 2021). It is caused by microbes, helminths and toxins that lead to an imbalance in the systems responsible for the regulation of the absorption of electrolytes and water in the gut, consequently leading to dehydration (Essuman et al, 2021).…”