Evaluation of potential variables contributing to the development and duration of plantar lesions in a population of aquarium‐maintained African penguins (Spheniscus demersus)

Abstract

Bumblefoot (pododermatitis), often described as the most significant environmental disease of captive penguins, is commonly due to excessive pressure or trauma on the plantar surface of the avian foot, resulting in inflammation or necrosis and causing severe swelling, abrasions, or cracks in the skin. Although not formally evaluated in penguins, contributing factors for bumblefoot are thought to be similar to those initiating the condition in raptors and poultry. These factors include substrate, body weight, and lack of exercise. The primary purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate variables potentially contributing to the development and duration of plantar lesions in aquarium-maintained African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), including sex, weight, age, season, exhibit activity, and territory substrate. Results indicate that males develop significantly more plantar lesions than females. Penguins weighing between 3.51 and 4.0 kg develop plantar lesions significantly more often than penguins weighing between 2.5 and 3.5 kg, and because male African penguins ordinarily weigh significantly more than females, weight is likely a contributing factor in the development of lesions in males compared with females. Significantly more plantar lesions were observed in penguins standing for greater than 50% of their time on exhibit than swimming. Penguins occupying smooth concrete territories developed more plantar lesions compared with penguins occupying grate territories. Recommendations for minimizing bumblefoot in African penguins include training penguins for monthly foot examinations for early detection of plantar lesions predisposing for the disease, encouraging swimming activity, and replacing smooth surfaces on exhibit with surfaces providing variable degrees of pressure and texture on the feet.

Comparative study between photodynamic and antibiotic therapies for treatment of footpad dermatitis (bumblefoot) in Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus)

“…Possible stress due to physical restraint can be minimized through conditioning of animals in permanent captivity [7].…”

“…Consequently, perfusion of the dermal tissues becomes compromised, which allows microorganisms to damage the dermis [6], leading to erosion and ulcer formation. Inappropriate environment and sedentary habits are therefore factors that may explain why this condition is one of the most frequent and important clinical complications in captive birds [7].…”

Photodynamic therapy for pododermatitis in penguins

“…Pododermatitis is commonly found in captivity and in rehabilitation centers, and an arsenal of drugs is traditionally used as an attempt to overcome it. Another factor involved in the severity of the disease is the high degree of infections recurrence; it is difficult to achieve perfect healing, which contributes to the difficulty of managing the disease [Erlacher‐reid et al, ].…”

“…The severity of the disease can be classified into five stages that vary according to clinical aspects [Oaks, ]. These lesions are currently one of the most frequent and important clinical complications in seabirds kept in captivity or in rehabilitation centers [Erlacher‐reid et al, ].…”

Reducing bumblefoot lesions in a group of captive Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) with the use of environmental enrichment

“…Young (2003), showed that, in species such as penguins, the probability of the development of this disease can be reduced by lessen the pressure on the feet with the use of pebbles as substrates. According to Erlacher-Reid et al (2011), smooth flat substrates, such as concrete and increased weight are likely to increase pressure on the bony prominences and heels where lesions are usually located. The stimulation of their permanence in the water by their interaction with enrichment items showed to be effective in reducing bumblefoot lesions (4 in 5 penguins) throughout the 12 weeks of observations, showing to have a direct relation between the increase of time spent in the water and the decrease of lesions.…”