Evaluation of Non-Invasive Biological Samples to Monitor Staphylococcus aureus Colonization in Great Apes and Lemurs

Abstract

IntroductionReintroduction of endangered animals as part of conservational programs bears the risk of importing human pathogens from the sanctuary to the natural habitat. One bacterial pathogen that serves as a model organism to analyze this transmission is Staphylococcus aureus as it can colonize and infect both humans and animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the utility of various biological samples to monitor S. aureus colonization in great apes and lemurs.MethodsMucosal swabs from wild lemurs (n=25, Kirindy, Madagascar), feces, oral and genital swabs from captive chimpanzees (n=58, Ngamba and Entebbe, Uganda) and fruit wadges and feces from wild chimpanzees (n=21, Taï National Parc, Côte d’Ivoire) were screened for S. aureus. Antimicrobial resistance and selected virulence factors were tested for each isolate. Sequence based genotyping (spa typing, multilocus sequence typing) was applied to assess the population structure of S. aureus.ResultsOro-pharyngeal carriage of S. aureus was high in lemurs (72%, n=18) and captive chimpanzees (69.2%, n=27 and 100%, n=6, respectively). Wild chimpanzees shed S. aureus through feces (43.8, n=7) and fruit wadges (54.5, n=12). Analysis of multiple sampling revealed that two samples are sufficient to detect those animals which shed S. aureus through feces or fruit wadges. Genotyping showed that captive animals are more frequently colonized with human-associated S. aureus lineages.ConclusionOro-pharyngeal swabs are useful to screen for S. aureus colonization in apes and lemurs before reintroduction. Duplicates of stool and fruit wadges reliably detect S. aureus shedding in wild chimpanzees. We propose to apply these sampling strategies in future reintroduction programs to screen for S. aureus colonization. They may also be useful to monitor S. aureus in wild populations.

Transmission of MDR MRSA between primates, their environment and personnel at a United States primate centre

“…23 -25 A recent study reported three MSSA ST188 from sanctuary chimpanzees isolated in Uganda and 10 MSSA ST188 isolated from wild Madagascar lemurs. 5 None of the African MSSA ST188 isolates was phenotypically resistant to the three antibiotics tested. 5 The WaNPRC periodically hosts guest researchers from Pan-Asia, and we cannot rule out the possibility that a foreign researcher or another person inadvertently introduced MRSA ST188 into the primate colony.…”

“…5 None of the African MSSA ST188 isolates was phenotypically resistant to the three antibiotics tested. 5 The WaNPRC periodically hosts guest researchers from Pan-Asia, and we cannot rule out the possibility that a foreign researcher or another person inadvertently introduced MRSA ST188 into the primate colony. However, several observations make it more likely that ST188 strains were brought into the USA by a primate.…”

“…The predominance of ST188 in the primates studied and the paucity of that ST within the local human community suggest that MSSA and/or MRSA ST188 could be part of the normal primate microbiota, particularly since MSSA ST188 has been identified in 13 (15%) of 84 MSSA isolated in African primates. 5 We note that MRSA ST188 has also been isolated from non-human primates from another primate facility on the East Coast (J. Lane, WaNPRC, personal communication): the probability of multiple, independent human-toprimate transmission events in independent facilities is expected to be low.…”

“…The current study suggests that primates in US primate centres and from commercial suppliers are likely an unappreciated source and reservoir of MRSA, and should consequently be screened when animals are moved between and within facilities. 5 We also recommend that a baseline level of MRSA carriage be determined at all primate facilities. Studies have isolated MSSA from wild primate populations, but no studies have yet been published showing MRSA in wild primate populations, or what the risk to humans the MRSA-positive primates are.…”

Lignes directrices pour de meilleures pratiques en matière de suivi de la santé et de contrôle des maladies des populations de grands singes

“…Les agents pathogènes et les anticorps produits contre ces agents peuvent être décelés dans les échantillons de fèces Kaiser et al 2010 ;Köndgen et al 2010 ;Prugnolle et al 2010 ;Reed et al 2014). La salive trouvée sur un aliment partiellement consommé et abandonné peut fournir des informations sur des agents pathogènes spécifiques (Schaumburg et al 2013 ;Smiley Evans et al 2015). Même en petite quantité, du sang présent sur des feuilles ou d'autres substrats suite à des conflits violents ou une blessure est un matériau extrêmement précieux qui peut servir au dépistage d'anticorps et d'agents pathogènes (Leendertz et al 2006).…”