Evaluation of long‐term detection trends of new psychoactive substances in pooled urine from city street portable urinals (London, UK)

Abstract

Aims To evaluate the long‐term trends of new psychoactive substance (NPS) detection in pooled urine samples collected across a city centre. Methods Pooled urine samples from portable stand‐alone urinals were collected on a monthly basis over 5.5 years (July 2013–December 2018) across a city centre. These were analysed using a high‐performance liquid chromatography system, interfaced to a high‐resolution accurate mass spectrometer. Data were processed against a database containing over 2000 drugs/metabolites including over 800 NPS. Results In total, 44 NPS were detected with variation over time including cathinones (15, 34.1%), synthetic cannabinoids (8, 18.2%) and 21 (47.7%) other NPS. Since the introduction of the UK Psychoactive Substances Act (May 2016) cathinone detection has decreased with minimal detection over the last 4 months of the study. Synthetic cannabinoids were not detected on a regular basis until July 2016 with a subsequent variable detection frequency. There was a consistent, low level detection frequency of all other NPS throughout the study, but which appears to have increased alongside the decrease in cathinone detection. Conclusion Pooled urine analysis of samples taken from portable urinals in a city centre can be used as an effective monitoring tool to determine long‐term trends in the use of NPS. The results of this study demonstrate the impact of the Psychoactive Substances Act and reflect the findings of population surveys and clinical studies. Triangulation of these data with other data sources will enable greater insight into the NPS phenomenon.

Perspectives and challenges associated with the determination of new psychoactive substances in urine and wastewater – A tutorial

“…70-120%) [56]. LLE has been shown to aid in the detection of synthetic cannabinoids in pooled urine [57] and wastewater [43,58]. For wastewater studies, it is important to note that the removal of the solid fraction through filtration can greatly affect the overall recovery of synthetic cannabinoids due to their lipophilicity.…”

“…Although both pooled urine and wastewater analyses incorporate SPE, there is a much lower preconcentration factor needed for pooled urine, with initial volumes of 1-2 mL, due to the generally higher concentrations found [23,45,57]. Furthermore, lower pre-concentration results in less matrix effects and potentially an improved chromatographic performance.…”

Psychoactive Substances of Natural Origin: Toxicological Aspects, Therapeutic Properties and Analysis in Biological Samples

“…NPSs have spread around the world, mainly because they are marketed on the internet in dark web forums, with different names, namely “bath salts”, “legal highs”, or “research chemicals” [ 3 ]. These substances are generally consumed because they are able to mimic the effects of more conventional drugs of abuse and because they are not detected in common screening methods [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. However, the various risks associated with the consumption of NPSs are described in the literature, as well as the resulting health problems [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].…”

The challenge of the novel psychoactive substances: How have we responded and what are the implications of this response?

“…This allows comparison of patterns of use both across different geographical regions and countries across different time periods. Analysis of urine from street level urinals compliments the data from wastewater treatment studies, since it allows detection at a smaller geographical level as well as enabling the detection of illicit drugs and NPS at lower levels without the confounding issues of bacterial metabolism in the wastewater system . The development of the European Drug Emergencies Network (Euro‐DEN) project from the original 16 sentinel centres in 10 European Countries in 2013 to 33 sentinel centres in 22 European and neighbouring countries in the expanded European Drug Emergencies Network Plus (Euro‐DEN Plus) project by the end of 2019 has provided a detailed insight into the acute harms and toxicity related to the use of both illicit drugs and NPS .…”

“…However, this still required initial evidence of use and related harms, and so in 2016, the Psychoactive Substance Act came into law which effectively controlled the importation, distribution, and sale of any substance that had potential psychoactive activity . The impact of these novel mechanisms of controlling substances is not yet fully understood, but, as demonstrated in this themed issue and data from other sources, there is the potential that the UK Psychoactive Substance Act has reduced the availability, use, and associated harms of NPS …”