Evaluation of Atrial and Ventricular Septal Defects with Real-Time Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Current Status and Literature Review

Abstract

Within this report we present a state of the art assessment of the status of 3D echocardiographic imaging (3D echo) of atrial septal defect (ASD) and ventricular septal defect (VSD). After a brief literature review of past studies, we delve into more recent developments in greater detail. For ASD we focus on new developments and reports regarding real-time transesophageal echocardiography. For VSD there have been no recent reports in the last 2 years dealing with new advances in 3D echo of VSD by either transthoracic or transesophageal approaches. Therefore, we present our experience in 3D echo of VSD by both methods. The literature is far from replete on this subject; therefore, a significant portion of this report is based on the authors' personal experience using 3D echo in over 200 cases with ASD, VSD, or both lesions in children and adults. A collection of representative reference 3D echoes of ASD and VSD are presented to serve as a review of the anatomic variations which the echocardiographer and sonographer are likely to encounter.

Visualization and quantitation of fetal movements by real-time three-dimensional ultrasound with live xPlane imaging in the first trimester of pregnancy

“…Live xPlane imaging has been used to observe fetal heart chambers and aortic arches by providing high resolution view (21-23). Compared with conventional 2D US, real-time 3D US with live xPlane imaging adds another section and provides more information while the frame rate does not obviously decrease (24). With regard to the multiplanar view of 3D volumes acquired by conventional mechanical 3D probes, only the primary plane is acquired with full resolution while the other two planes are reconstructed.…”

Three-Dimensional Echocardiographic En Face Views of Ventricular Septal Defects: Feasibility, Accuracy, Imaging Protocols and Reference Image Collection

“…17 High-frequency transthoracic transducers have brought 3D echocardiography to patients of all sizes. Improvements in acquisition and postprocessing software have made it possible to obtain quality images in a majority of patients.…”

“…Subsequent investigators built on this technique, and in 2012, Sivakumar et al 19 reported a novel method for en face views of VSDs using narrow-sector real-time live 3D mode, which further reduced the acquisition time and improved the image resolution and volume rate of the acquired sample. [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] In addition to diagnostic imaging, 3DE has proved useful for procedural guidance of transcatheter device closure of VSDs, as reported by Acar et al 25,27 and others. [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] Charakida et al 32 extended the discussion of 3DE of VSDs to include clinically useful aspects of its application to patients treated surgically and compared its strengths and weaknesses with those of cardiac MRI and computed tomography.…”