“…It relies solely on information from optical and thermal sensors, such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), with moderate resolutions and frequent repetition intervals, and Landsat TM/ETM+, which has a moderately high resolution [1,10,18,[23][24][25]. For the thermal sensor, the LST estimation requires specific adjustments for each observation date, as it is not only influenced by soil moisture but also by atmospheric factors such as air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed, as pointed out in a recent study by [26][27][28]. Therefore, TVDI has been applied in various ecosystems around the world, including tropical [18,22] and semi-arid monsoon regions [23,25,29,30].…”