Evaluating the drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use cognitive enhancement drugs: the influence of drug characteristics, social environment, and personal characteristics

Abstract

BackgroundThe use of cognitive enhancement (CE) by means of pharmaceutical agents has been the subject of intense debate both among scientists and in the media. This study investigates several drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use prescription drugs non-medically for augmenting brain capacity.MethodsWe conducted a web-based study among 2,877 students from randomly selected disciplines at German universities. Using a factorial survey, respondents expressed their willingness to take various hypothetical CE-drugs; the drugs were described by five experimentally varied characteristics and the social environment by three varied characteristics. Personal characteristics and demographic controls were also measured.ResultsWe found that 65.3% of the respondents staunchly refused to use CE-drugs. The results of a multivariate negative binomial regression indicated that respondents’ willingness to use CE-drugs increased if the potential drugs promised a significant augmentation of mental capacity and a high probability of achieving this augmentation. Willingness decreased when there was a high probability of side effects and a high price. Prevalent CE-drug use among peers increased willingness, whereas a social environment that strongly disapproved of these drugs decreased it. Regarding the respondents’ characteristics, pronounced academic procrastination, high cognitive test anxiety, low intrinsic motivation, low internalization of social norms against CE-drug use, and past experiences with CE-drugs increased willingness. The potential severity of side effects, social recommendations about using CE-drugs, risk preferences, and competencies had no measured effects upon willingness.ConclusionsThese findings contribute to understanding factors that influence the willingness to use CE-drugs. They support the assumption of instrumental drug use and may contribute to the development of prevention, policy, and educational strategies.

Cognitive Enhancement and Coping in an Australian University Student Sample

“…While previous studies have focused on CE as a coping strategy for dealing with excessive academic demands (Sattler et al 2014;Sattler and Wiegel 2013), this study was the first to quantitatively consider CE and its relation to coping styles more generally. Results found that, in both lifestyle and prescription drug groups, greater reported use of dysfunctional coping strategies was associated with a significantly increased likelihood of engagement in CE drug use.…”

“…Therefore, it may be that cognitive enhancement is a coping strategy to deal with the stress and pressure typically associated with university life (Schelle et al 2015). This is reflected in the literature: CE has been examined extensively as a response to academic-related stress (Ford and Schroeder 2009;Forlini et al 2015;Sattler et al 2014;Sattler and Wiegel 2013;Wolff and Brand 2013). Comparatively little is known, however, about the relationship (if any) between enhancement drug use and coping.…”

The importance of stress, self-efficacy, and self-medication for pharmacological neuroenhancement among employees and students

“…This is in line with the finding that students who reported having used drugs to improve performance while studying had difficulties to meet the study demands and perceived persistently high performance pressure (Maier et al, 2013;Middendorff et al, 2012). Moreover, pronounced procrastination and high cognitive test anxiety, both characteristics that support chronic stress, increased the willingness to use drugs for PCE among students (Sattler et al, 2014).…”

“…Moreover, participants were asked about past and current diagnoses of mental health disorders (ADHD, narcolepsy, depression, anxiety disorder, and substance use disorder) that are known to be treated with medications that the scientific literature often refers to as neuroenhancement drugs (Rabiner et al, 2009b;Sattler et al, 2014). A dichotomous variable was used in the analysis to represent the current use of a prescription drug to treat at least one of the aforementioned mental disorders (yes or no).…”

“…Insufficient coping skills and substance abuse in the face of chronic stress might cause mental health problems, and vice versa (Mohr et al, 2014). Additionally, individual and situation-specific differences in the perception of stress and in coping strategies are related to decisions about whether to engage in PNE (Sattler et al, 2014).…”