Evaluating method and potential risks of chlorine-resistant bacteria (CRB): A review

Luo, Li-Wei; Wu, Yin-Hu; Yu, Ting; Wang, Yunlong; Chen, Gen-Qiang; Tong, Xin; Bai, Yuan; Xu, Chuang; Wang, Haobin; Ikuno, Nozomu; Hu, Hong-Ying

doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.116474

Cited by 123 publications

(62 citation statements)

References 72 publications

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“…Chlorine-tolerant bacteria were often detected in drinking water or drinking water distribution systems. Five chlorine-tolerant bacteria, namely, Legionella , Sphingomonas , Mycobacterium , Bacillus , and Pseudomonas are most commonly reported in published literature ( Luo et al., 2021 ). Notably, Sphingomonas TS001 , a chlorine-tolerant bacterium, could withstand 4 mg/L sodium hypochlorite which showed only 5% reduction in viability after 240 min of exposure ( Sun et al., 2013 ).…”

Section: Biocidal Agents In Covid-19 Disinfectants and Increased Tolementioning

confidence: 99%

Biocide-tolerance and antibiotic-resistance in community environments and risk of direct transfers to humans: Unintended consequences of community-wide surface disinfecting during COVID-19?

Chen

Han

et al. 2021

Environmental Pollution

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During the current pandemic, chemical disinfectants are ubiquitously and routinely used in community environments, especially on common touch surfaces in public settings, as a means of controlling the virus spread. An underappreciated risk in current regulatory guidelines and scholarly discussions, however, is that the persisting input of chemical disinfectants can exacerbate the growth of biocide-tolerant and antibiotic-resistant bacteria on those surfaces and allow their direct transfers to humans. For COVID-19, the most commonly used disinfecting agents are quaternary ammonium compounds, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and ethanol, which account for two-thirds of the active ingredients in current EPA-approved disinfectant products for the novel coronavirus. Tolerance to each of these compounds, which can be either intrinsic or acquired, has been observed on various bacterial pathogens. Of those, mutations and horizontal gene transfer, upregulation of efflux pumps, membrane alteration, and biofilm formation are the common mechanisms conferring biocide tolerance in bacteria. Further, the linkage between disinfectant use and antibiotic resistance was suggested in laboratory and real-life settings. Evidence showed that substantial bacterial transfers to hands could effectuate from short contacts with surrounding surfaces and further from fingers to lips. While current literature on disinfectant-induced antimicrobial resistance predominantly focuses on municipal wastes and the natural environments, in reality the community and public settings are most severely impacted by intensive and regular chemical disinfecting during COVID-19 and, due to their proximity to humans, biocide-tolerant and antibiotic-resistant bacteria emerged in these environments may pose risks of direct transfers to humans, particularly in densely populated urban communities. Here we highlight these risk factors by reviewing the most pertinent and up-to-date evidence, and provide several feasible strategies to mitigate these risks in the scenario of a prolonging pandemic.

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Section: Biocidal Agents In Covid-19 Disinfectants and Increased Tolementioning

confidence: 99%

Biocide-tolerance and antibiotic-resistance in community environments and risk of direct transfers to humans: Unintended consequences of community-wide surface disinfecting during COVID-19?

Chen

Han

et al. 2021

Environmental Pollution

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“…In addition, the presence of long-term chlorine disinfectants makes it possible for microorganisms to develop chlorine resistance (Luo et al 2021). Considering that hospital wastewater contains a variety of clinically related antibiotics and pathogens, pathogens that show both antibiotic and chlorine resistance may enhance the potential risk of transmission to the aquatic environment and humans.…”

Section: Analysis Of Bacteria and Community Characterization In Hospimentioning

confidence: 99%

Occurrence and removal of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance genes, and bacterial communities in hospital wastewater

Yao

Yang

et al. 2021

Environ Sci Pollut Res

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Hospital wastewater contains a variety of human antibiotics and pathogens, which makes the treatment of hospital wastewater essential. However, there is a lack of research on these pollutants at hospital wastewater treatment plants. In this study, the characteristics and removal of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the independent treatment processes of hospitals of different scales (primary hospital, H1; secondary hospital, H2; and tertiary hospital, H3) were investigated. The occurrence of antibiotics and ARGs in wastewater from three hospitals varied greatly. The first-generation cephalosporin cefradine was detected at a concentration of 2.38 μg/L in untreated wastewater from H1, while the fourth-generation cephalosporin cefepime had the highest concentration, 540.39 μg/L, at H3. Ofloxacin was detected at a frequency of 100% and had removal efficiencies of 44.2%, 51.5%, and 81.6% at H1, H2, and H3, respectively. The highest relative abundances of the βlactam resistance gene bla GES-1 (1.77×10 −3 copies/16S rRNA), the quinolone resistance gene qnrA (8.81×10 −6 copies/16S rRNA), and the integron intI1 (1.86×10 −4 copies/16S rRNA) were detected in the treated wastewater. The concentrations of several ARGs were increased in the treated wastewater (e.g. bla OXA-1 , bla OXA-10 , and bla TEM-1 ). Several pathogenic or opportunistic bacteria (e.g. Acinetobacter, Klebsiella, Aeromonas, and Pseudomonas) were observed at high relative abundances in the treated wastewater. These results suggested the co-occurrence of antibiotics, ARGs, and antibiotic-resistant pathogens in hospital wastewater, and these factors may spread into the receiving aquatic environment.

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“…It potentially reduces the cell permeability and increases the resistance to chlorine [6,18] . More recently Luo et al, (2020) emphasized that the resistant to chlorine is greatly attributed to cell permeability barriers and protective function of several genes that control oxidative stress, DNA repair, efflux pump, pore protein regulation and cell wall repair [40] . The ability of bacterial isolates to tolerate different concentrations of chlorine has been investigated by other researchers.…”

Section: Determination Of Chlorine Resistant Enterobacter Cloacaementioning

confidence: 99%

Assessment of Chlorine Resistance Enterobacter cloacae Isolated from Water Storage Tanks in Sulaimaniyah City-Iraq

Najmuldeen¹

2021

PJBAS

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This study was designed to determine the extent of contamination of water storage tanks by non-lactose fermenter Enterobacter spp, and to characterize the chlorine and antibiotic resistance status. Moreover, to find the correlation between biofilm formation and resistance to chlorine. For this purpose, a total of 60 water samples were collected from residential and restaurant water storage tanks. Bacterial analysis and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of the samples were assessed by the Most Probable Number (MPN) and Vitek 2 compact tests, respectively. The biofilm formation was quantified by crystal violet staining method and chlorine resistance test by microdilution technique. Obtained results indicated that water samples were contaminated by Escherichia coli (35%). Additionally, water samples that were assessed to be potable by the MPN test showed that (44%) positive for Enterobacter cloacae. Results of chlorine resistance test revealed variation in resistance of E. cloacae to different concentrations of chlorine, and relatively similar antibiotic susceptibility profiles. Moreover, biofilm analysis showed the isolates that were resistant to concentration of chlorine 400 mg L -1 , have formed significantly more biofilm than those that were resistant to other concentrations. A positive non-linear correlation (r = 0.72) was found between the degree of biofilm formation and the ability of isolates to resist different chlorine concentrations, and no correlation has been detected between antibiotic and chlorine resistance. It can be concluded that the presence of chlorine resistant E. cloacae in drinking water can pose a real public health threat. The routine microbial water analysis should be modified to include detection of nonlactosefermenter Enterobacter.

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Evaluating method and potential risks of chlorine-resistant bacteria (CRB): A review

Cited by 123 publications

References 72 publications

Biocide-tolerance and antibiotic-resistance in community environments and risk of direct transfers to humans: Unintended consequences of community-wide surface disinfecting during COVID-19?

Biocide-tolerance and antibiotic-resistance in community environments and risk of direct transfers to humans: Unintended consequences of community-wide surface disinfecting during COVID-19?

Occurrence and removal of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance genes, and bacterial communities in hospital wastewater

Assessment of Chlorine Resistance Enterobacter cloacae Isolated from Water Storage Tanks in Sulaimaniyah City-Iraq

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