European Brown hare (Lepus europaeus) as a source of emerging and re‐emerging pathogens of Public Health importance: A review

Abstract

European brown hare ( Lepus europaeus, EBH) is probably the most important game animal in Europe throughout its historical distribution. The decline in its populations across its geographic range in Europe have been attributed to factors such as reproductive rate and the ability for adaptation, climate, feed availability, predators, anthropogenic factors and diseases. Apart from common diseases of hares with a high impact on their mortality such as European Brown hare Syndrome, EBH has been involved in the epidemiology of pathogens with zoonotic potential. In this work, the role of EBH as a source of Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), Hepatitis E virus (HEV), Yersinia spp., Brucella spp., Francisella tularensis , Toxoplasma gondii and Leishmania infantum is discussed. Hares may significantly contribute to the epidemiology of important emerging zoonotic pathogens through maintenance of high endemicity levels as in the case of CCHFV, as a reservoir of important pathogens such as Yersinia spp., B. suis , F. tularensis and L. infantum and as a potential source of T. gondii for other animals, especially for carnivores but also for humans. However, EBH may also be a host of minor importance as in the case of HEV. The continuous surveillance of hare populations will enable the collection of information on the population health status and the pathogens currently circulating in the area posing risk for wildlife, domestic animals and humans. The possible live animal translocations of infected hares, the fact that this species acts as a host of vectors (fleas, ticks, mosquitoes and sandflies) and the prey of carnivores and omnivores that travel in great distances getting into contact with domestic animals and humans, further highlights the need to be included in surveillance studies. Besides, the hunter‐harvested EBH population is an excellent indicator for recent pathogen transmission due to its short lifespan.

Francisella tularensis Subspecies holarctica and Tularemia in Germany

“…Some wild animals (raccoon dog, red fox, wild boar, hares, voles) have been suggested as serving as natural reservoirs for F. tularensis subsp. holarctica or as sentinels for tularemia [ 36 , 38 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 47 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. The role of ticks and mosquitoes for the transmission of tularemia in Europe likely differs between countries and is still under investigation [ 22 , 26 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 55 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 ].…”

Coinfections of Novel Polyomavirus, Anelloviruses and a Recombinant Strain of Myxoma Virus-MYXV-Tol Identified in Iberian Hares

“…In addition, we identify the presence of the MYXV-Tol variant in four hares, and reveal coinfections in three hares, of either both or one of the novel anelloviruses and/or polyomaviruses. Hare populations have declined since the late 1960s which is thought to be in part due to disease [7,51,52]. The recent documentation of an outbreak of myxoma virus in hares caused by a prevalent recombinant MYXV-Tol [8][9][10] highlights another threat to the species.…”

“…The bias toward the study of viruses associated with disease is clear in the Leporidae family (Lagomorpha order). In fact, most of the research undertaken has been directed toward the highly pathogenic lagoviruses (family Caliciviridae), such as the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus [1][2][3], and the leporipoxviruses (family Poxviridae) like the myxoma virus (MYXV) [4][5][6][7]. In a recent study of diseased Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) from the Toledo province in Spain, a novel recombinant MYXV strain was identified (MYXV-Tol; GenBank Accession MK836424) showing, for the first time, that a pathogenic myxoma virus could also infect and cause myxomatosis in species of the Lepus genus [8].…”

Epidemiological and Public Health Significance of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Wild Rabbits and Hares: 2010–2020

“…The low seroprevalence (0% in L. europaeus and 4.2% in L. timidus ) observed in Finland, concomitantly with cases of fatal toxoplasmosis, might indicate a natural, inherent susceptibility of these hare species to T. gondii at least in those areas [ 40 ]. On the other hand, higher seroprevalence levels have been observed in other countries, e.g., France, Austria, Czech Republic or Slovakia [ 21 , 41 ], suggesting that European brown hares can survive T. gondii infection in the wild in other areas [ 6 ]. In another hare species, the Iberian hare ( Lepus granatensis ) endemic in Spain, no clinical cases were detected, and a moderate to low seroprevalence (11.4%) was observed [ 5 ].…”

“…Some other rabbit species, such as the Eastern cottontail rabbit ( Sylvilagus floridanus ), were introduced from North America to some parts of Europe to increase the potential for small game hunting but are now considered an invasive species [ 13 ]. When referring to hares, the European brown hare ( Lepus europaeus ) is probably the most important game animal in Europe [ 6 ]. In China, another type of hare, the Tolai hare ( Lepus tolai ), is very popular due to its rich nutritional value [ 14 ].…”