Ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicity of Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima: A comprehensive review

Abstract

Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. F. is a valuable medicinal plant used in south Asian communities for the treatment of asthma, diarrhea, diabetes, liver diseases, fever, pain and inflammation. This review critically evaluates the available information on P. integerrima's ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Electronic databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Springer Link, and so forth, books and theses were used to find relevant information about P. integerrima using keywords such as "Pistacia integerrima," "P. integerrima," "Ethnopharmacology," "Phytochemistry," "Traditional uses". A number of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities have been reported; however, the most promising and attractive activity observed was its role in Alzheimer, diabetes, convulsions, cancer, asthma, diabetes, diarrhea and as an immunomodulatory, analgesic and antiinflammatory. In addition, Pistagremic acid exerted anti-Alzheimer's activity based on a hitherto unknown mechanism through interference with the amyloidogenic pathway. Most of the pharmacological activities were linked with traditional uses. A range of compounds have been reported from P. integerrima extracts including triterpenes, volatile oils, flavonoids, fatty acids, phenolic, phytosterols, tannins and oligosaccharides as well as unknown triterpenes and flavonoids. Pistagremic acid, a novel triterpene, was attributed to most of the activities. in vivo toxicological studies in animal suggested a toxic dose of 1,500 mg kg −1 , for its methanolic extract. All reported pharmacological activities were carried out in vitro and a gap in research, that is, preclinical and clinical investigation exists. Its outstanding activity as an antiglycating agent is the most promising and a so far unique activity and needs further evaluation. In-depth research and clinical trials on human subjects in order to investigate P. integerrima pharmacological activity, clinical efficacy and safety are crucial next steps.

Why Should Pistachio Be a Regular Food in Our Diet?

“…In a recent meta-analysis of randomized, controlled-feeding clinical studies, Fogacci et al [ 56 ] reviewed the effect of pistachio on brachial artery diameter and flow-mediated dilatation and suggested a significant effect of pistachios on endothelial reactivity, affecting brachial artery diameter but not flow-mediated dilatation. Recently, a comprehensive review [ 57 ] and several systematic reviews and meta-analyses Ghanavati et al [ 58 ] demonstrated that pistachio consumption can elicit a beneficial effect on some cardiometabolic risk factors, and Asbaghi et al [ 59 ] suggest the efficacy of pistachio consumption to reduce SBP. Finally, early this year, in the latest review dealing with the effect of dietary polyphenols on vascular health, Grosso and coworkers concluded that hypertension is counteracted by a plant-based dietary pattern, including pistachio, for example, since no single food is enough to control hypertension [ 60 ] ( Figure 1 ).…”

Herbal Preparations Used Against Fatty Liver Disease: Systematic Review

“…52 Pistacia chinensis Bunge: The fruits of this species are traditionally used in liver diseases and were found to be effective in fatty liver experimentally. 53 Pluchea indica (L.) Less. : It is known that it is used to protect liver health in traditional medicine.…”

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) an edible mushroom; a comprehensive and critical review of its nutritional, cosmeceutical, mycochemical, pharmacological, clinical, and toxicological properties

“…In most cases, it is the presence of multiple mycochemicals in a plant that exerts a pharmacological effect. At times, it is not easy to assume/hypothesize a single mechanism involved (Ahmad, Almubayedh, et al, 2020). Toxicity , adverse effects , and chronic use ; it's not always about the efficacy and potency for the developed test drugs or products; at times, it is also important to monitor the adverse effects, toxicities, and allergy, etc., particularly with chronic use or at high doses.…”