Ethnic Identity Development, Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms, and Relationships with Primary Caregivers: A Two-Wave Longitudinal Study among Yi Ethnic Minority Youths in Rural China School Settings

Abstract

Background. This study examined the effects of post-traumatic stress symptoms and child–primary caregiver relationships on the ethnic identity of Yi ethnic minority adolescents (n = 550; aged 13–18) in rural China over one school year. The moderating effect of caregivers’ relationships over time and ethnic identity, and post-traumatic stress and ethnic identity, were investigated. Methods. Participants completed two waves of the survey. Longitudinal multilevel modeling was used. Results. (1) Ethnic identity exploration increased over time, while ethnic identity commitment remained stable. (2) Post-traumatic stress symptoms led to high levels of ethnic identity exploration and commitment. (3) Participants with distinct caregivers’ relationship patterns, i.e., secured, optimal, deprived, and disengaged, differed in their ethnic identity exploration scores, but not in ethnic identity commitment. (4) While the secured group scored highest in their ethnic identity development over time, youths who felt disengaged with their caregivers showed the fastest rate of positive change in their ethnic identity exploration. (5) Having a secured caregivers’ relationship weakened the effect of post-traumatic stress on ethnic identity exploration. Conclusion. Practical implications for the meaning of ethnic identity exploration, the promoting effect of caregivers’ relationships, and the negative impact of post-traumatic stress among ethnic minority youths were discussed. Future research directions were also proposed.

Effects of students’ perception of teachers’ ethnic-racial socialization on students’ ethnic identity and mental health in rural China’s schools

“…The mental and psychological health benefits of strong ethnic identity commitment and resolution have been demonstrated in previous research, for example, lower depressive and anxiety symptoms and better self-esteem, self-efficacy, and academic motivation in multiracial and ethnic-minority young people, in both Western and Asian societies (e.g., Smith and Silva, 2011 ; Rivas-Drake et al, 2014 ; Lai et al, 2019 ; Kuang and Nishikawa, 2021 ; Long et al, 2021 ; Lai et al, 2022a , b ). However, ethnic identity commitment without resolution is not healthy ( Tajfel and Turner, 1986 ; Phinney, 1996 ; Umaña-Taylor, 2023 ).…”

“…A higher score indicated a higher level of stress symptoms. The scale was previously tested on Yi children and showed good reliability and validity ( Lai et al, 2022a ).…”

“…Taking the example of China, the largest country in East Asia, ethnic minority often refers to indigenous peoples. In China, studies on ethnic minorities sought to understand their physical health, socio-economic outcomes, and issues related to community development (e.g., Huang et al, 2017 ; Postiglione, 2017 ; Gustafsson et al, 2022 ), with a growing scholarship on ethnic or national identity and psychological health, including studies conducted by the authors of this article (e.g., Lai et al, 2017 , 2019 , 2022a , b ; Guan et al, 2022a ). Existing research has also explored the experiences of indigenous peoples in Japan and Taiwan, most often about their history, cultures, and issues related to racial injustice but not their ethnic identity (e.g., Weiner, 2009 ; Huang et al, 2021 ; Lai and Teyra, 2023 ).…”

“…As China modernized, the Yi remained ethnically unmixed and retained their cultural practices due to the area’s remoteness, resulting in impoverishment ( Harrell, 2001 ). Chronic poverty has led to a high percentage of parental loss and instability, leading to maladaptive development, such as the occurrence of post-traumatic symptoms in Yi children (e.g., Lai et al, 2022a ).…”

An Investigation of Yi Folk Song Knowledge and Development in Guizhou, China

“…Yi folk song, as an essential aspect of traditional culture, reflects the nation's valuable cultural memory, demonstrating a process of cultural inheritance that runs from generation to generation. Yi Folk Song has grabbed the attention of many experts and academics as a classic of the Yi ethnic group and has had a favorable influence on the future development of Yi culture (Harrell, 1990;Anand et al, 2000;Mayes et al, 2017;Lai et al, 2022).…”