Ethics, Genetic Technologies and Equine Sports: The Prospect of Regulation of a Modified Therapeutic Use Exemption Policy

Abstract

This article critically reviews the current availability and selected use of genetic technologies for horses, before undertaking an ethical evaluation of current practice and regulatory positions in comparative relation to debates surrounding genetic testing, preimplantation genetic testing and gene editing in humans. We argue that genetic testing for hereditary disorders is not only justified but should be encouraged on welfare grounds and that genetic testing for performance traits is ethically permissible based on a restricted imperative to genetically edit horses and horse embryos to reduce genetic predisposition to disease and injury. Given the current state of the science, where the effects of gene editing on health and welfare are currently undetermined, space is created for an analytical distinction between equine gene editing for 'treatment' and for 'enhancement'. Gene editing is only justified for purposes of correcting/preventing disease and injury. Current regulation is challenged by apparently conflicting welfare-based ethical imperatives with respect to welfare-based gene editing. We propose modifications to the blanket bans on gene editing with a case-by-case assessment of applications to permit gene editing, based on best welfare interests underwritten by the aim of facilitating fair sport that adapt WADAs International Standard for Therapeutic Use Exemptions, adding an important reporting element. We reject the use of gene editing to obtain currently prohibited competitive advantages. In order to safeguard the welfare of human and equine athletes, we argue that regulatory institutions should urgently collaborate to develop cross-sport international regulations for the use of gene editing, including obligatory reporting of data about the health and welfare of genetically edited horses.

Direct sequence confirmation of qPCR products for gene doping assay validation in horses

“…Our LOD of 100 or 200 copies/ml, which incorporates the extraction process, was comparable with other studies using plasma as the matrix, using either droplet digital PCR 1 or qPCR. 2 To ensure the application on NGS on samples approaching the LOD, we performed our sequencing on successful post-qPCR reactions at or below the calculated LOD values. In all cases, we were able to obtain sufficient reads to detect the presence of the expected transgene sequence.…”

“…The misuse of gene therapy by the introduction of transgenes as a doping agent is an increasing concern in human and animal sports, 1–3 both to fair competition and welfare. In one scenario, transgenes are introduced into somatic cells using either viruses 4 or plasmids 5 as delivery vectors.…”

An Ethical Framework for the Use of Horses in Competitive Sport: Theory and Function

“…In relation to equestrian sport, mention of 'fair play' and/or integrity feature on the websites, rule books or codes of conduct provided by the publications of Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI), the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities (IFHA), the British Horseracing Authority (BHA), the Hurlingham Polo Association, the Pony Club, the British Equestrian Fededation (BEF), and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Consistent with such an emphasis on fair play and integrity, the principle of justice has been commonly employed in the ethical analysis of sport [31,[33][34][35]. The ethical concept of autonomy within sport-particularly of an athlete's autonomy in decision making about their participation where that may conflict with their objectively perceived welfare [36]-is also an important one.…”

Physical Exercise in the Promotion of Gene Therapy Auxiliary Effect

“…At the same time, the test uses Anti-DIG-AP (1:500) for detection, and NBT/BCIP color development. 5 The control is set as a positive control (osteosarcoma), a blank control where we omit the probe, and a RNAase digestion control.…”