“…, z 13 }, with variables r = {z 1 , z 2 , z 4 , z 10 } as receivers and e = {z 1 , z 3 , z 4 , z 6 , z 7 , z 8 , z 10 , z 12 , z 13 } as emitters (with variables z 5 , z 9 , and z 11 being neither). This leads to a simplified graph in Figure 4 As an example of peripheral extension and the robustness of the estimation strategies, consider a causal graph shown in Figure 5, studied earlier in (Helske et al, 2021), where the interest is in the causal effect of the education level X e on income X i . Now assume that there are a number of other background variables X A = (X a 1 , .…”