“…The approach is based on cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs; de la Torre et al., 2018; Junker & Sijtsma, 2001; Rupp & Templin, 2008). CDMs have been employed in both educational and noneducational contexts (Chen et al., 2017; de la Torre et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2019; Iaconangelo et al., 2022; Lee & Sawaki, 2009; Xu et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2021). For example, CDMs have been employed to evaluate reading comprehension in English (Lee & Sawaki, 2009; Ravand, 2016; Ravand & Robitzsch, 2018) and to diagnose psychological disorders (de la Torre et al., 2018; Jaeger et al., 2006; Templin & Henson, 2006).…”