Estimating cardiac output. Utility in the clinical practice. Available invasive and non-invasive monitoring

Relationship between non‐invasive haemodynamic responses and cardiopulmonary exercise testing in patients with coronary artery disease

“…Additional approaches to haemodynamic measurements, as a complement or alternative to established CPX variables, may provide value during information regarding cardiac function during aerobic exercise (Arena et al ., ), particularly in patients with myocardial ischaemia. However, thermodilution, considered a gold standard, is a difficult undertaking, given it is invasive, time‐consuming, expensive, carries an inherent risk (Garcia et al, ), and is difficult to measure accurately during incremental exercise (Warburton et al ., ; Jong et al ., ; Pugsley & Lerner, ).…”

Measuring Cardiac Output in Humans

“…This concept is similar to the Fick method, in which the content of oxygen in the pulmonary artery exiting the heart to the lungs was compared against the oxygen content in the systemic arterial circulation (Grossman, 2006). The thermodilution method is currently commonly used and is considered by some to be the de facto standard method for assessment of cardiac output (Garcia et al, 2011;Schroeder et al, 2009). In this method, a cold bolus of water or saline is injected into the right atrium, where it mixes with blood and reduces the blood temperature.…”

“…Cardiac output can be measured using this method, combined with pulse wave Doppler applied suprasternally to measure blood flow velocity through the mitral or aortic valve or the left ventricular outflow tract (Garcia et al, 2011). There are also minimally invasive usage of Doppler which includes pulmonary artery, transtracheal and transoesophageal approaches (Berton & Cholley, 2002;Garcia et al, 2011;Schroeder et al, 2009). The blood velocity measurement is related to the Doppler principle.…”

“…Since the data are derived from the arterial pressure waveform, it is critical that the data are collected with strict calibration, correct zeroing and adequate harmonic features (Garcia et al, 2011).…”

Stroke volume and cardiac output non-invasive monitoring based on brachial oscillometry-derived pulse contour analysis: Explanatory variables and reference intervals throughout life (3–88 years)

“…Non-invasive assessment of left ventricle (LV) stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO) and cardiac index (CI) were shown to be useful for the evaluation, diagnosis and/or management of different clinical and physiological conditions in both pediatric, and adult populations [1,2]. Several non-invasive and/or minimally invasive approaches have been proposed to determine SV, CO and CI (i.e.…”