Equine influenza and air transport

Cullinane, Ann

doi:10.1111/eve.12215

Cited by 11 publications

(14 citation statements)

References 4 publications

(7 reference statements)

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“…The Florida clade 1 and 2 (FC1, FC2) viruses have predominated in the US and Europe, respectively [1]. Additionally, both have caused sporadic outbreaks in diverse geographic locations, which highlights how the increased frequency of air travel has considerably reduced the time necessary for the spread of a virus between continents [8]. This is apparent from the introduction of the US-derived FC1 into South Africa [9], Japan [10], Australia [11] and Europe [5,12], and the European-derived FC2 into China [13], Mongolia [14] and India [15].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, Malaysia is a country that has not previously experienced a disease outbreak caused by H3N8 EIV. In EI-free countries, the virus is typically introduced to susceptible populations by the international movement of infected horses that are not vaccinated with the most epidemiologically relevant EI strains to ensure protective cover [8,16]. Horses travel internationally more frequently than any other species, with the exception of humans, and therefore ensuring that all traveling animals are adequately vaccinated with the most antigenically relevant EI strains will help prevent this disease.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia

et al. 2019

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In August 2015, Malaysia experienced an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses. Clinical signs observed were consistent with equine influenza (EI) infection. The index cases were horses recently imported from New Zealand. Rapid control measures, including temporary cancellation of racing, were implemented to minimize the impact of the outbreak. By November, the disease outbreak was resolved, and movement restrictions were lifted. The aim of this study was to confirm the clinical diagnosis and characterize the causal virus. A pan-reactive influenza type A real-time RT-PCR was used for confirmatory diagnosis. Antigenic characterization by haemagglutinin inhibition using a panel of specific ferret antisera indicated that the causal virus belonged to clade 1 of the H3N8 Florida sub-lineage. The genetic characterization was achieved by the whole genome sequencing of positive nasal swabs from clinically affected animals. Pylogenetic analysis of the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes demonstrated ≥99% homology with several EI strains that had recently circulated in the USA and Japan. The antigenic and genetic characterization did not indicate that the current World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommendations for EI vaccine composition required modification.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia

et al. 2019

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“…Experimentally infected animals vaccinated with a heterologous vaccine strain shed virus for longer than those that received a homologous vaccine . In countries which are free from EI, the virus has frequently been introduced by the importation of infected vaccinated horses . Thus, it is extremely important that the equine industry has access to epidemiologically relevant vaccines.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…19 In countries which are free from EI, the virus has frequently been introduced by the importation of infected vaccinated horses. 20…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Whole‐genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey

Gahan

Garvey

Gildea

et al. 2018

Influenza Resp Viruses

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BackgroundIn 2013, there was an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses in Turkey. The clinical signs were consistent with equine influenza (EI).ObjectiveThe aim was to confirm the cause of the outbreak and characterise the causal virus.MethodsA pan‐reactive influenza type A real‐time RT‐PCR and a rapid antigen detection kit were used for confirmatory diagnosis of equine influenza virus (EIV). Immunological susceptibility to EIV was examined using single radial haemolysis and ELISA. Antigenic characterisation was completed by haemagglutinin inhibition using a panel of specific ferret antisera. Genetic characterisation was achieved by whole‐genome sequencing using segment‐specific primers with M13 tags.ResultsA H3N8 EIV of the Florida clade 2 sublineage (FC2) was confirmed as the causal agent. The index cases were unvaccinated and immunologically susceptible. Phylogenetic analysis of the HA1 and NA genes demonstrated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 clustered with the FC2 strains circulating in Europe. Antigenic characterisation confirmed the FC2 classification and demonstrated the absence of significant drift. Whole‐genome sequencing indicated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 is most closely related to the viruses described as the 179 group based on the substitution I179V in HA1, for example A/equine/East Renfrewshire/2/2011, A/equine/Cambremer/1/2012 and A/equine/Saone et Loire/1/2015. The greatest diversity was observed in the NS1 segment and the polymerase complex.ConclusionsThe first recorded outbreak of EI in Turkey was caused by an FC2 virus closely related to viruses circulating in Europe. Antigenic and genetic characterisation gave no indication that the current OIE recommendations for EI vaccine composition require modification.

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“…International travel is essential to the sustainability of the horse industry, and horses move between countries for breeding, sales, exhibitions, and competitions. Horses travel more by air than any other species except man, and air transport appears to increase the susceptibility of the respiratory tract to viral infections, such as influenza [26][27][28]. This study was implemented through a public private partnership of the OIE, FEI, and IFHA, with the aim of developing an evidence-based vaccination strategy to decrease the risk of travel-based equine influenza outbreaks.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of Current Equine Influenza Vaccination Protocols Prior to Shipment, Guided by OIE Standards

et al. 2020

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To facilitate the temporary importation of horses for competition and racing purposes, with a minimum risk of transmitting equine influenza, the World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties, or OIE), formally engaged in a public–private partnership with the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) and the International Federation for Horseracing Authorities (IFHA) to establish, within the context of existing OIE standards, a science-based rationale to identify the ideal time period for equine influenza vaccination prior to shipment. Field trials using vaccines based on different technologies were carried out on three continents. The antibody response post-booster vaccination at intervals aligned with the different rules/recommendations of the OIE, FEI, and IFHA, was monitored by single radial haemolysis. It was determined that 14 days was the optimum period necessary to allow horses adequate time to respond to booster vaccination and for horses that have previously received four or more doses of vaccine and are older than four years, it is adequate to allow vaccination within 180 days of shipment. In contrast, the results indicate that there is a potential benefit to younger (four years old or younger) horses in requiring booster vaccination within 90 days of shipment, consistent with the current OIE standard.

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Equine influenza and air transport

Cited by 11 publications

References 4 publications

Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia

Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia

Whole‐genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey

Evaluation of Current Equine Influenza Vaccination Protocols Prior to Shipment, Guided by OIE Standards

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