Epizootiology of Anthrax and Nyasa Wildebeest in the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

Gainer, Robert S.

doi:10.7589/0090-3558-23.1.175

Cited by 11 publications

(7 citation statements)

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“…In 1985, hundreds of different species of wildlife carcasses were laboratory-confirmed to have died from anthrax in the Selous game reserve [ 22 ], and in 1988, a big anthrax outbreak in wildlife was reported in the Tarangire national park in which 142 impalas, three zebras, four wildebeests and one giraffe were counted dead [ 23 ]. Since then, different species of wildlife and livestock and humans have frequently been affected by B. anthracis , with varying disease patterns between years in terms of the size of outbreaks and species affected [ 24 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Risk factors for human cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot districts of Northern Tanzania: an unmatched case–control study

et al. 2018

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Bacillus anthracis is an aerobic, Gram-positive and spore-forming bacterium, which causes anthrax in herbivores. Humans get infected after coming into contact with infected animals' products. An unmatched case–control study was conducted to identify the importance of demographic, biological and/or behavioural factors associated with human cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot areas of Northern Tanzania. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to both cases and controls. The age range of participants was 1–80 years with a median age of 32 years. In the younger group (1–20 years), the odds of being infected were 25 times higher in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group (OR= 25, 95% CI = 1.5–410). By contrast, the odds of exposure in the old group (≥20 years) were three times lower in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group (OR = 3.2, 95% CI = 1.28–8.00). Demographic characteristics, sleeping on animal's skins, contacting with infected carcasses through skinning and butchering, and not having formal education were linked to exposure for anthrax infection. Hence, a One Health approach is inevitable for the prevention and control of anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot areas of Northern Tanzania.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Risk factors for human cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot districts of Northern Tanzania: an unmatched case–control study

et al. 2018

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“…Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in vegetation cover can influence the distribution and migratory behavior of herbivores (Winnie et al, 2008;Peters et al, 2017;Duparc et al, 2020), enhancing aggregation in greener habitats. Such aggregations can lead to overgrazing of rich patches and an increased risk of anthrax infection (Gainer, 1987). For Zaragoza et al, 2005), protist species speculated to amplify anthrax presence in the soil based on experimental results (Dey et al, 2012).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Identifying Edaphic Factors and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Metrics Driving Wildlife Mortality From Anthrax in Kenya’s Wildlife Areas

et al. 2021

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Anthrax, an acute disease of homeotherms caused by soil-borne Bacillus anthracis is implicated in dramatic declines in wildlife mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Anthrax outbreaks are often localized in space and time. Therefore, understanding predictors of the spatial and temporal occurrence of anthrax in wildlife areas is useful in supporting early warning and improved response and targeting measures to reduce the impact of epizootic risk on populations. Spatial localization of anthrax is hypothesized to be driven by edaphic factors, while the temporal outbreaks are thought to be driven by extreme weather events including temperature, humidity, rainfall, and drought. Here, we test the role of select edaphic factors and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) metrics driven by vegetation structure and climate variability on the spatial and temporal patterns of wildlife mortality from anthrax in key wildlife areas in Kenya over a 20-year period, from 2000 to 2019. There was a positive association between the number of anthrax outbreaks and the total number of months anthrax was reported during the study period and the nitrogen and organic carbon content of the soil in each wildlife area. The monthly occurrence (timing) of anthrax in Lake Nakuru (with the most intense outbreaks) was positively related to the previous month’s spatial heterogeneity in NDVI and monthly NDVI deviation from 20-year monthly means. Generalized linear models revealed that the number of months anthrax was reported in a year (intensity) was positively related to spatial heterogeneity in NDVI, total organic carbon and cation exchange capacity of the soil. These results, examined in the light of experimental studies on anthrax persistence and amplification in the soil enlighten on mechanisms by which these factors are driving anthrax outbreaks and spatial localization.

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“…The relationship that anthrax has with some host species must inevitably involve the host's immune system, latent infections, stressful environmental conditions, and mutual benefit. For instance, Gainer's [33,34] study of anthrax in wildebeest in the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania in the early 1970s (at the time isolated from livestock and domestication) might illustrate such a relationship. The region's carnivores all moved to the wildebeest calving area where the wildebeest had concentrated to take advantage of the lush green short grass.…”

Section: Latent Infectionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Review of Arguments for the Existence of Latent Infections of Bacillus anthracis, and Research Needed to Understand Their Role in the Outbreaks of Anthrax

Gainer¹,

Vergnaud

Hugh‐Jones

2020

Microorganisms

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Hugh-Jones and Blackburn and Turnbull’s collective World Health Organization (WHO) report did literature reviews of the theories and the bases for causes of anthrax outbreaks. Both comment on an often-mentioned suspicion that, even though unproven, latent infections are likely involved. Hugh-Jones suggested Gainer do an updated review of our present-day knowledge of latent infections, which was the basis for Gainer’s talk at the Biology of Anthrax Conference in Bari, Italy 2019. At the Conference Gainer met Vergnaud who presented anthrax genome studies that implied that the disease might have spread throughout Asia and from Europe to North America in a short time span of three or four centuries. Vergnaud wondered if latent infections might have played a role in the process. Several other presenters at the Conference also mentioned results that might suggest the existence of latent infections. Vergnaud subsequently looked into some of the old French literature about related observations, results, and discussions of early Pasteur vaccine usage (late 1800′s) and found mentions of suspected latent infections. The first part of the paper is a focused summary and interpretation of Hugh-Jones and Blackburn’s and Turnbull’s reviews specifically looking for suggestions of latent infections, a few additional studies with slightly different approaches, and several mentions made of presentations and posters at the Conference in Italy. In general, many different investigators in different areas and aspects of the anthrax study at the Conference found reasons to suspect the existence of latent infections. The authors conclude that the affected species most studied, including Homo sapiens, provide circumstantial evidence of latent infections and modified host resistance. The last part of the review explores the research needed to prove or disprove the existence of latent infections.

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Epizootiology of Anthrax and Nyasa Wildebeest in the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

Cited by 11 publications

References 0 publications

Risk factors for human cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot districts of Northern Tanzania: an unmatched case–control study

Risk factors for human cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot districts of Northern Tanzania: an unmatched case–control study

Identifying Edaphic Factors and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Metrics Driving Wildlife Mortality From Anthrax in Kenya’s Wildlife Areas

A Review of Arguments for the Existence of Latent Infections of Bacillus anthracis, and Research Needed to Understand Their Role in the Outbreaks of Anthrax

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