Epidemiology, risk factors, and pathogenesis associated with a superbug: A comprehensive literature review on hepatitis C virus infection

Abstract

Viral hepatitis is a major public health concern. It is associated with life threatening conditions including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis C virus infects around 71 million people annually, resultantly 700,000 deaths worldwide. Extrahepatic associated chronic hepatitis C virus accounts for one fourth of total healthcare load. This review included a total of 150 studies that revealed almost 19 million people are infected with hepatitis C virus and 240,000 new cases are being reported each year. This trend is continually rising in developing countries like Pakistan where intravenous drug abuse, street barbers, unsafe blood transfusions, use of unsterilized surgical instruments and recycled syringes plays a major role in virus transmission. Almost 123–180 million people are found to be hepatitis C virus infected or carrier that accounts for 2%–3% of world’s population. The general symptoms of hepatitis C virus infection include fatigue, jaundice, dark urine, anorexia, fever malaise, nausea and constipation varying on severity and chronicity of infection. More than 90% of hepatitis C virus infected patients are treated with direct-acting antiviral agents that prevent progression of liver disease, decreasing the elevation of hepatocellular carcinoma. Standardizing the healthcare techniques, minimizing the street practices, and screening for viral hepatitis on mass levels for early diagnosis and prompt treatment may help in decreasing the burden on already fragmented healthcare system. However, more advanced studies on larger populations focusing on mode of transmission and treatment protocols are warranted to understand and minimize the overall infection and death stigma among masses.

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection: Screening, Diagnosis, Therapy and Prevention

“…Contact with an infected person's blood or body, use of drugs via injection, implementation in nursing of patient or medical laboratory work, identify a sexual partner or family member having previous infection with HCV are the main transmission pathways. 27 However, compared to the other underlying causes, the chance of STIs and mother-to-child transmission of HCV is lower during pregnancy. HCV RNA in serum can be used to assess infection stage as well as the likelihood of a chronic infection or transmissible infection.…”

Alterations in the “Gut–Liver Axis” on Rats with Immunological Hepatic Fibrosis

“…Liver disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality and is also a substantial economic burden. Worldwide each year, more than 300 million people are infected with hepatitis B or C (HBV/HCV) and approximately 1.4 million die from HBV/HCV [1][2][3]. Liver fibrosis is a wound-healing response to long-term liver injury, such as that caused by infection with HBV/HCV or by toxins, drugs, or cholestasis [4,5].…”

Genomic divergence of Hepatitis C virus towards common prescribed interferon regimens on sustained virologic response (SVR) ‎

“…The global prevalence of Hepatitis is approximately 1.6 percent, with a viraemic rate of about 1.1 percent, affecting about 80 million global populace, and more than 71 million individuals globally have chronic Hepatitis C infection, which can lead to liver cirrhosis. There is currently no clear HCV vaccine available right now an estimated 399000 people die each year from hepatitis C, predominantly cirrhosis and HCC [11]. The phylogenetic analysis of HCV isolates from various parts of the world demonstrated six major hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes, known as types1-6, as well as various subtypes [12], and a newly discovered seventh type (Innogenetic).…”