(−)-Epicatechin and the comorbidities of obesity

Abstract

Obesity has major adverse consequences on human health contributing to the development of, among others, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, altered behavior and cognition, and cancer. Changes in dietary habits and lifestyle could contribute to mitigate the development and/or progression of these pathologies. This review will discuss current evidence on the beneficial actions of the flavan-3-ol (−)-epicatechin (EC) on obesity-associated comorbidities. These benefits can be in part explained through EC's capacity to mitigate several common events underlying the development of these pathologies, including: i) high circulating levels of glucose, lipids and endotoxins; ii) chronic systemic inflammation; iii) tissue endoplasmic reticulum and oxidative stress; iv) insulin resistance; v) mitochondria dysfunction and vi) dysbiosis. The currently known underlying mechanisms and cellular targets of EC's beneficial effects are discussed. While, there is limited evidence from human studies supplementing with pure EC, other studies involving cocoa supplementation in humans, pure EC in rodents and in vitro studies, support a potential beneficial action of EC on obesity-associated comorbidities. This evidence also stresses the need of further research in the field, which would contribute to the development of human dietary strategies to mitigate the adverse consequences of obesity. Alarmingly, the prevalence of obesity was almost three times higher in 2016 compared to 1975. Numerous comorbidities and an increased risk of mortality are associated to obesity [3-5]. Among those comorbidities, obesity can increase the risk to develop: i) insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D); ii) hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD); iii) dyslipidemia; iv) non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD); v) altered behavior and cognition; vi) cancer, and vii) alterations in the gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, renal, respiratory and immune systems.

To Explore the Molecular Mechanism of Acupuncture Alleviating Inflammation and Treating Obesity Based on Text Mining

“…As an inflammatory factor associated with obesity, the level of IL-6 is positively correlated with obesity [ 13 , 14 ]. In obese people, the enlarged adipocytes in adipose tissue, altered mitochondria, local hypoxia-induced oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress can promote the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and TNF- α , and the secretion of IL-6 is positively correlated with adipocyte size [ 15 , 16 ]. In addition, during inflammation, there is also a positive feedback effect of calmodulin 0 activating TLR4 and downstream inflammatory signaling pathways to promote IL-6 release [ 17 ].…”

Linking biomarkers of oxidative stress and disease with flavonoid consumption: From experimental models to humans

“…As we previously reviewed [ 83 , 84 ], consumption of EC or EC-rich foods is associated with improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. While these effects have been observed in humans and rodents, the potential mechanisms of EC actions were mostly studied in rodents with diet (high fat and/or high fructose)-induced insulin resistance and T2D [ [85] , [86] , [87] , [88] , [89] , [90] ].…”

Regulation of Cytochrome c Oxidase by Natural Compounds Resveratrol, (–)-Epicatechin, and Betaine

“…In addition, it suppresses inflammation by modulating oxidative stress-related cell signaling pathways [106]. Because of its anti-oxidative properties, EPI has been proposed to prevent or even rescue from diseases which are caused by or associated with oxidative stress, such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and others [107][108][109][110][111].…”