Environmental Sustainability Evaluation of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized via Green Synthesis and the Coprecipitation Method: A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment Study

Abstract

Green synthesis, based on green chemistry, is replacing the traditional methods, aiming to contribute with an enhanced environmental sustainability, which can be achieved using nontoxic compounds from biological resources, such as natural extracts from plants. In this study, the life cycle assessment (LCA) of iron oxide nanoparticles prepared through the green synthesis and the coprecipitation method is reported by following a cradle-to-gate approach. The LCA allowed quantifying and normalized the environmental impacts produced by the green synthesis (1.0 × 10 –9 ), which used a Cymbopogon citratus ( C. citratus ) extract and sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ). The impacts were also determined for the coprecipitation method (1.4 × 10 –8 ) using the iron(II) salt precursor and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The contribution of C. citratus extract and Na 2 CO 3 as the precursor and pH-stabilizing agents, respectively, was compared regarding the iron(II) and NaOH compounds. Environmental sustainability was evaluated in human toxicity, ecosystem quality, and resource depletion. The major environmental contribution was found in the marine aquatic ecotoxicity (7.6 × 10 –10 and 1.22 × 10 –8 for green synthesis and the coprecipitation method) due to the highest values for ethanol (3.5 × 10 –10 ) and electricity (1.4 × 10 –8 ) usage since fossil fuels and wastewater are involved in their production. The C. citratus extract (2.5 × 10 –12 ) presented a better environmental performance, whereas Na 2 CO 3 (4.3 × 10 –11 ) showed a slight increase contribution compared to NaOH (4.1 × 10 –11 ). This is related to their fabrication, involving toxic compounds, land occupation, and excessive water usage. In general, the total environmental impacts are lower for the green synthesis, suggesting the implementation of environmentally friendlier compounds based on natural sources for the production of nanomaterials.

All Shapes and Phases of Nanometer-Sized Iron Oxides Made from Natural Sources and Waste Material via Green Synthesis Approach: A Review

“…Green synthesis of the stable phase of iron oxides, such as FeO, Fe 3 O 4 , γ-Fe 2 O 3 , and α-Fe 2 O 3 phases have been continuously developed. 249 Mahin et al, even successful to reach green, scalable, low-cost, and reproducible flow synthesis of biocompatible PEG-functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles using a novel combination of synthesis and functionalization through modular microreactor systems. 250 Using Box−Behnken design, Singh et al also maintained that the volume of leaf extract, agitation speed, and temperature significantly affect mean nanoparticle size, surface charge, and size distribution to obtain the reproducible green synthesis of iron oxides.…”

“…To obtain nanometer-sized iron oxides with desirable shape, phase, and structure, a strategy to find reproducible synthesis routes is important. Green synthesis of the stable phase of iron oxides, such as FeO, Fe 3 O 4 , γ-Fe 2 O 3 , and α-Fe 2 O 3 phases have been continuously developed . Mahin et al, even successful to reach green, scalable, low-cost, and reproducible flow synthesis of biocompatible PEG-functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles using a novel combination of synthesis and functionalization through modular microreactor systems .…”

Sustainable Design Approach for Modeling Bioprocesses from Laboratory toward Commercialization: Optimizing Chitosan Production

“…The ReCiPe 2016 was selected as the impact assessment, aiming to establish the environmental sustainability of the evaluated alternatives [ 44 ]. ReCiPe is a problem-oriented method for performing comprehensive impact assessment, simplifying the interpretation phase in the cause–effect chain [ 45 ]. The plant is assumed to be located in the North Colombia region, a primary shrimp production cluster.…”

Terminalia arjuna, a Cardioprotective Herbal Medicine–Relevancy in the Modern Era of Pharmaceuticals and Green Nanomedicine—A Review

“…There are three most commonly used methods of metal nanoparticle synthesis: physical (ball milling [ 96 ], plasma arcing [ 97 ], spray pyrolysis [ 98 ], sputter deposition [ 99 ], etc. ), chemical (electrodeposition [ 100 ], sol-gel process [ 101 ], co-precipitation method [ 102 ], etc. ), and biological methods (using plants, algae, and microorganisms).…”