Environmental Factors Associated with High Fly Densities and Diarrhea in Vellore, India

Collinet-Adler, Stefan; Babji, Sudhir; Francis, Mark R.; Kattula, Deepthi; Premkumar, Prasanna Samuel; Sarkar, Rajiv; Mohan, V.R.; Ward, Honorine; Kang, Gagandeep; Balraj, Vinohar; Naumova, Elena N.

doi:10.1128/aem.01236-15

Cited by 53 publications

(55 citation statements)

References 36 publications

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“…Insects- and food-borne transmission are two other important pathways by which diarrhea-causing pathogens can be transported (Collinet-Adler et al, 2015). However, little research has been pursued to understand the relationships between climate change and these pathways.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Planning for climate change: The need for mechanistic systems-based approaches to study climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases

Mellor

Lévy

Zimmerman

et al. 2016

Science of The Total Environment

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Increased precipitation and temperature variability as well as extreme events related to climate change are predicted to affect the availability and quality of water globally. Already heavily burdened with diarrheal diseases due to poor access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, communities throughout the developing world lack the adaptive capacity to sufficiently respond to the additional adversity caused by climate change. Studies suggest that diarrhea rates are positively correlated with increased temperature, and show a complex relationship with precipitation. Although climate change will likely increase rates of diarrheal diseases on average, there is a poor mechanistic understanding of the underlying disease transmission processes and substantial uncertainty surrounding current estimates. This makes it difficult to recommend appropriate adaptation strategies. We review the relevant climate-related mechanisms behind transmission of diarrheal disease pathogens and argue that systems-based mechanistic approaches incorporating human, engineered and environmental components are urgently needed. We then review successful systems-based approaches used in other environmental health fields and detail one modeling framework to predict climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases and design adaptation strategies.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Planning for climate change: The need for mechanistic systems-based approaches to study climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases

Mellor

Lévy

Zimmerman

et al. 2016

Science of The Total Environment

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“…Decrease in diarrhoea cannot be attributed to fly control only.Cohen 1991Study population was soldiers aged 18 to 22.Collinet‐Adler 2015No intervention of interestCorbo 1951No outcomes of interestEmerson 1999Study design does not fulfil the inclusion criteriaEmerson 2004No diarrhoea related outcomesGorbatow 1951Observational studyHeijnen 2015No intervention of interestInder Singh 1971No outcomes of interestInder Singh 1973No outcomes of interestJung 2016Study protocol onlyLindsay 1953Outcomes not available for our population of interestLindsay 2013No outcome of interestMcCabe 1957Study on excreta disposalMeifert 1967Study focuses on fly density only, with no mention of diarrhoeaOvergaard 2016No intervention of interestParvez 2017No intervention of interestSchmidt 2016No intervention of interestSehgal 1970Outcomes not available for our population of interestSkovgård 2004No outcomes of interest: study focused on cattle and pig farmsSonge 2017No intervention of interestSrinivasan 2003No outcome of interestTerry 1913No population of interestTilak 2007No outcomes of interestTilak 2010No outcomes of interestVasiliev 1970No diarrhoea outcomesVlppo 1950Outcomes not available for our population of interest…”

Section: Characteristics Of Excluded Studies [Ordered By Study Id]mentioning

confidence: 99%

Fly control to prevent diarrhoea in children

Das

Hadi

Hoda

et al. 2018

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

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BackgroundDiarrhoeal disease accounts for millions of child deaths every year. Although the role of flies as vectors of infectious diarrhoea has been established, fly control is not often mentioned as an approach to decrease childhood diarrhoea. Theoretically, fly control for decreasing diarrhoea incidence can be achieved by intervening at four different levels: reduction or elimination of fly breeding sites; reduction of sources that attract houseflies; prevention of contact between flies and disease‐causing organisms; and protection of people, food, and food utensils from contact with flies.ObjectivesTo assess the impact of various housefly control measures on the incidence of diarrhoea and its related morbidity and mortality in children under five years of age.Search methodsWe searched electronic databases including the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and LILACS, from database inception to 24 May 2018. We also searched trial registries for relevant grey literature and ongoing trials. We checked the references of the identified studies and reviews. We did not apply any filters for language, publication status (published, unpublished, in press, and ongoing), or publication date.Selection criteriaWe planned to include randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi‐RCTs, and controlled before‐and‐after studies that studied the effect of fly control on diarrhoea in children under five years of age.Data collection and analysisTwo review authors extracted the data and independently assessed the risk of bias in the included study. We planned to contact study authors for additional information, where necessary. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach.Main resultsWe included one cluster‐RCT (491 participants) conducted in Pakistan that evaluated insecticide spraying in the first two years and baited fly traps in the third year. Insecticide spraying reduced the fly population (house index) in the intervention group during the four months of the year when both flies and cases of diarrhoea were more common, but not at other times. On average, this was associated with a reduction in the incidence of diarrhoea in the first year (illustrative mean episodes per child‐year in the intervention group was 6.3 while in the control group was 7.1) and second year of the intervention (illustrative mean episodes per child‒year in the intervention group was 4.4 while in the control group was 6.5; rate ratio (RaR) 0.77, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.67 to 0.89, low‐certainty evidence). In the third year of the intervention, the baited fly traps did not demonstrate an effect on the fly population or on diarrhoea incidence (RaR 1.15, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.47, low‐certainty evidence).Authors' conclusionsThe trial, conducted in a setting where there were clear seasonal peaks in fly numbers and associated diarrhoea, shows insecticide spraying may reduce diarrhoea in children. Further research on whether this finding is applicable to other setting is r...

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“…Sentinel objects were plastic (28/50), metal (17/50), other material (4/50), or mixed material (1/50).†Household floors were cement (39/50), tile (8/50), or other material (3/50).‡Units are colony-forming unit (CFU)/pair of hands.§Units are CFU/100 mL.¶Units are CFU/125 cm 2 .∥Though P values for ORs are omitted for reasons of space in the table, none were significant at α = 0.05.**Estimate is in log 10 CFU/pair of hands.††Estimate is in log 10 CFU/100 mL.‡‡Estimate is in log 10 CFU/125 cm 2 .§§Old Town neighborhood (reference is Chinnallapuram).¶¶Hygiene status was divided into “poor” or “good” hygiene categories based on a 18-point scale (0–9 as “poor,” 10–18 as “good”) discussed in Methods section and presented in Collinet-Adler and others 34…”

Section: Tablementioning

confidence: 99%

The Influence of Household- and Community-Level Sanitation and Fecal Sludge Management on Urban Fecal Contamination in Households and Drains and Enteric Infection in Children

Berendes

Kirby

Clennon

et al. 2017

The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

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Urban sanitation necessitates management of fecal sludge inside and outside the household. This study examined associations between household sanitation, fecal contamination, and enteric infection in two low-income neighborhoods in Vellore, India. Surveys and spatial analysis assessed the presence and clustering of toilets and fecal sludge management (FSM) practices in 200 households. Fecal contamination was measured in environmental samples from 50 households and household drains. Enteric infection was assessed from stool specimens from children under 5 years of age in these households. The two neighborhoods differed significantly in toilet coverage (78% versus 33%) and spatial clustering. Overall, 49% of toilets discharged directly into open drains (“poor FSM”). Children in households with poor FSM had 3.78 times higher prevalence of enteric infection when compared with children in other households, even those without toilets. In the neighborhood with high coverage of household toilets, children in households with poor FSM had 10 times higher prevalence of enteric infection than other children in the neighborhood and drains in poor FSM clusters who had significantly higher concentrations of genogroup II norovirus. Conversely, children in households with a toilet that contained excreta in a tank onsite had 55% lower prevalence of enteric infection compared with the rest of the study area. Notably, households with a toilet in the neighborhood with low toilet coverage had more fecal contamination on floors where children played compared with those without a toilet. Overall, both toilet coverage levels and FSM were associated with environmental fecal contamination and, subsequently, enteric infection prevalence in this urban setting.

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Environmental Factors Associated with High Fly Densities and Diarrhea in Vellore, India

Cited by 53 publications

References 36 publications

Planning for climate change: The need for mechanistic systems-based approaches to study climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases

Planning for climate change: The need for mechanistic systems-based approaches to study climate change impacts on diarrheal diseases

Fly control to prevent diarrhoea in children

The Influence of Household- and Community-Level Sanitation and Fecal Sludge Management on Urban Fecal Contamination in Households and Drains and Enteric Infection in Children

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