Enhancing Visible-Light Photocatalysis with Pd(II) Porphyrin-Based TiO2 Hybrid Nanomaterials: Preparation, Characterization, ROS Generation, and Photocatalytic Activity

Abstract

Novel hybrid TiO2-based materials were obtained by adsorption of two different porphyrins on the surface of nanoparticles—commercially available 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin (TPPS) and properly modified metalloporphyrin—5,10,15,20-tetrakis(2,6-difluoro-3-sulfophenyl)porphyrin palladium(II) (PdF2POH). The immobilization of porphyrins on the surface of TiO2 was possible due to the presence of sulfonyl groups. To further elevate the adsorption of porphyrin, an anchoring linker—4-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA)—was used. The synthesis of hybrid materials was proven by electronic absorption spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and photoelectrochemistry. Results prove the successful photosensitization of TiO2 to visible light by both porphyrins. However, the presence of the palladium ion in the modifier structure played a key role in strong adsorption, enhanced charge separation, and thus effective photosensitization. The incorporation of halogenated metalloporphyrins into TiO2 facilitates the enhancement of the comprehensive characteristics of the investigated materials and enables the evaluation of their performance under visible light. The effectiveness of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was also determined. Porphyrin-based materials with the addition of PHBA seemed to generate ROS more effectively than other composites. Interestingly, modifications influenced the generation of singlet oxygen for TPPS but not hydroxyl radical, in contrast to PdF2POH, where singlet oxygen generation was not influenced but hydroxyl radical generation was increased. Palladium (II) porphyrin-modified materials were characterized by higher photostability than TPPS-based nanostructures, as TPPS@PHBA-P25 materials showed the highest singlet oxygen generation and may be oxidized during light exposure. Photocatalytic activity tests with two model pollutants—methylene blue (MB) and the opioid drug tramadol (TRML)—confirmed the light dose-dependent degradation of those two compounds, especially PdF2POH@P25, which led to the virtually complete degradation of MB.

Photocatalytic Degradation of Pharmaceutical Residues from Water and Sewage Effluent Using Different TiO2 Nanomaterials

“…Among the different AOPs, photocatalysis using semiconductors such as TiO 2 represents a clean technology which has been studied and is becoming popular for the degradation of pharmaceuticals [ 8 , 11 ]. Various metal oxides such as Ga 2 O 3 [ 12 ], ZnO [ 13 , 14 ], TiO 2 [ 15 , 16 , 17 ], and In 2 O 3 [ 18 ], polymeric materials such as g-C 3 N 4 [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], and spinel structures such as CuFe 2 O 4 [ 23 ] and ZnFe 2 O 4 [ 24 ] have been used in photocatalysis technology. Notably, TiO 2 is generally regarded as the benchmark photocatalyst [ 25 ].…”