“…Engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) have dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm (Vert et al, 2012), and possess unique properties which make them highly valuable for various applications in technology, medicine, environment and consumer products (Zhang et al, 2016;Mitchell et al, 2021;Keller et al, 2023). When released into freshwater environment, ENPs can undergo a variety of physical and chemical transformations (Levard et al, 2012;Batley et al, 2013;Yu et al, 2018;Wheeler et al, 2021;Liu et al, 2022;Rex M et al, 2023). The interconnected transformation processes determine collectively the environmental behavior and effects of ENPs on aquatic biota (French et al, 2009;Fernando and Zhou, 2019;Khort et al, 2022).…”