“…Chizé is used as the reference population Although the exact physiological mechanisms regulating the full antler growth cycle are still debated (Bartos, Bubenik, & Kuzmova, 2012;Price & Allen, 2004), experimental manipulation of antler size has revealed that the annual growth and casting of antlers is governed by a complex interaction between photoperiod and several hormones, especially insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and testosterone (Price & Allen, 2004). While the relative contribution of these hormones to antler size is difficult to decipher (Ditchkoff, Spicer, Masters, & Lochmiller, 2001), positive correlations between levels of testosterone and IGF-1 and antler length have been repeatedly reported (Bartos et al, 2012), notably in roe deer (Schams, Barth, Heinze-Mutz, Pflaum, & Karg, 1992;Sempéré & Boissin, 1981). An increasing number of studies have highlighted the potential deleterious effects of these hormones (Foo, Nakagawa, Rhodes, & Simmons, 2017), which are assumed to play a pivotal role in governing life-history trade-offs (Dantzer & Swanson, 2012), notably between allocation to sexual competition during early life and ageing (Brooks & Garratt, 2017).…”