Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (Nonylphenol and Bisphenol A)–Sources, Harmfulness and Laccase-Assisted Degradation in the Aquatic Environment

Abstract

Environmental pollution with organic substances has become one of the world’s major problems. Although pollutants occur in the environment at concentrations ranging from nanograms to micrograms per liter, they can have a detrimental effect on species inhabiting aquatic environments. Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are a particularly dangerous group because they have estrogenic activity. Among EDCs, the alkylphenols commonly used in households deserve attention, from where they go to sewage treatment plants, and then to water reservoirs. New methods of wastewater treatment and removal of high concentrations of xenoestrogens from the aquatic environment are still being searched for. One promising approach is bioremediation, which uses living organisms such as fungi, bacteria, and plants to produce enzymes capable of breaking down organic pollutants. These enzymes include laccase, produced by white rot fungi. The ability of laccase to directly oxidize phenols and other aromatic compounds has become the focus of attention of researchers from around the world. Recent studies show the enormous potential of laccase application in processes such as detoxification and biodegradation of pollutants in natural and industrial wastes.

Biochemical Characteristics of Laccases and their Practical Application in the Removal of Xenobiotics from Waters

“…Polymers used in the production of packaging are supplemented with various additives that improve their properties. Such an additive to plastics is BPA (2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane) [230].…”

“…BPA is a monomer in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins and a plasticizer in the production of plastics. These materials are used in food storage containers or bottles and cans for food and beverages [230]. BPA is also an important ingredient in adhesives, flame retardants, paints, protective coatings, automotive lenses, compact discs, construction materials, thermal paper and dental sealants and composites [213].…”

“…BPA can diffuse into food and beverages. BPA migration from packaging increases during exposure to sunlight and elevated temperatures [230]. People are exposed to the adverse effects of BPA mainly through the consumption of food and beverages stored in plastic containers, bottles and cans.…”

“…Excessive exposure of people to BPA can lead to cardiovascular, endocrine and immunological disorders, diabetes and obesity [230]. Research has shown that BPA exhibits genotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, endocrine-disrupting activity, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity [232].…”

“…Research has shown that BPA exhibits genotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, endocrine-disrupting activity, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity [232]. In women, its presence in the environment has been linked to breast cancer [234], polycystic ovary syndrome, miscarriage, endometrial disorders and premature birth [9,213,230]. In men, BPA has been associated with lower semen quality, fertility, sex hormone levels and sexual dysfunction.…”