Encoding variability, levels of processing, and the effects of spacing of repetitions upon judgments of frequency

Abstract

Two experiments were carried out to compare the component-levels theory and the levelsof-processing hypothesis as explanations of the effect the spacing between repetitions of an item has upon the retention of that item. Retention was measured by judgments of frequency, frequency discrimination, and derived recognition scores. Variable encoding contexts facilitated recognition relative to repeated encoding contexts, while the latter biased subjects toward giving high judgments of frequency. The results in general were consonant with predictions derived from a levels-of-processing explanation of the spacing effect rather than the componentlevels theory. A modification of the latter theory to incorporate the former was suggested as a view of the memorial representation of repeated stimuli. >0-

Pupil dilations following pairs of identical and related to-be-remembered words

“…The levels-of-processing theory, therefore, predicts that a constant-encodingcontext condition should show a larger effect of spacing than a different-context condition. This prediction was supported by the results of Rose (1980).…”

“…It could be argued that the habituation hypothesis is only concerned with processes related to deliberate encoding into memory and, hence, that these RT studies are irrelevant. However, with this restriction, the theory is now unable to account for the spacing effect found in incidental learning (McFarland, Rhodes, & Frey, 1979;Rose, 1980;Rose & Rowe, 1976). A different approach, presented by Jacoby (1978), emphasizes an analogy between memorizing a word and solving a problem.…”

“…A position somewhat similar to Jacoby's (1978) has been proposed by Rose (1980;Rose & Rowe, 1976). This levels-of-processing approach states that, if an item is repeated, an attempt is made to retrieve the previous encoding of the item.…”

“…If it is assumed that a deeper level of processing leads to better long-term availability (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), then this theory can account for the spacing effect. A test of the levels-of-processing theory of the spacing effect was performed by Rose (1980). The theory predicts that encoding context will affect the depth-ofprocessing given to a repetition and, hence, memory of the repetition.…”

The spacing effect in intentional and incidental free recall by children and adults: Limits on the automaticity hypothesis

“…Our results both support and place limits on the hypothesis that the spacing effect in free recall is the product of be minimized because it is highly primed by the first presentation (Challis, 1993), or because it is recognized as a repetition, and processing is terminated without the need for elaborate semantic processing (Rose, 1980;Rose & Rowe, 1976). Although these hypotheses have been formulated in the context of research on cued-memory tasks involving conceptually driven processes (e.g., frequency judgments of meaningful stimuli), there is no obvious reason why similar processes could not influence other conceptually driven retrieval tasks, such as free recall.…”