“…Soluble markers of immune activation, that are more easily measurable than cellular activation, have also been shown to have prognostic value and predict HIV disease progression with comparable efficiency to CD4 counts and viral load measurements (Liu et al, 1997). In particular, neopterin, produced by macrophages upon IFNg stimulation (Melmed, Taylor, Detels, Bozorgmehri, & Fahey, 1989), beta 2 -microglobulin for general lymphoid activation (Chitra, Bakthavatsalam, & Palvannan, 2011;Fahey et al, 1990), and soluble IL-2 receptor (Sethi & Näher, 1986) have all been shown to be elevated and predictive of disease progression to varying degrees (Fahey et al, 1998). Increased soluble CD14 levels, a marker of monocyte activation that also correlated with IL-6, C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and D-dimer, independently predicts mortality in HIV patients (Sandler et al, 2011).…”