Elevated Lead in Drinking Water in Washington, DC, 2003–2004: The Public Health Response

Abstract

BackgroundIn 2003, residents of the District of Columbia (DC) experienced an abrupt rise in lead levels in drinking water, which followed a change in water-disinfection treatment in 2001 and which was attributed to consequent changes in water chemistry and corrosivity.ObjectivesTo evaluate the public health implications of the exceedance, the DC Department of Health expanded the scope of its monitoring programs for blood lead levels in children.MethodsFrom 3 February 2004 to 31 July 2004, 6,834 DC residents were screened to determine their blood lead levels.ResultsChildren from 6 months to 6 years of age constituted 2,342 of those tested; 65 had blood lead levels > 10 μg/dL (the “level of concern” defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), the highest with a level of 68 μg/dL. Investigation of their homes identified environmental sources of lead exposure other than tap water as the source, when the source was identified. Most of the children with elevated blood lead levels (n = 46; 70.8%) lived in homes without lead drinking-water service lines, which is the principal source of lead in drinking water in older cities. Although residents of houses with lead service lines had higher blood lead levels on average than those in houses that did not, this relationship is confounded. Older houses that retain lead service lines usually have not been rehabilitated and are more likely to be associated with other sources of exposure, particularly lead paint. None of 96 pregnant women tested showed blood lead levels > 10 μg/dL, but two nursing mothers had blood lead levels > 10 μg/dL. Among two data sets of 107 and 71 children for whom paired blood and water lead levels could be obtained, there was no correlation (r2 = –0.03142 for the 107).ConclusionsThe expanded screening program developed in response to increased lead levels in water uncovered the true dimensions of a continuing problem with sources of lead in homes, specifically lead paint. This study cannot be used to correlate lead in drinking water with blood lead levels directly because it is based on an ecologic rather than individualized exposure assessment; the protocol for measuring lead was based on regulatory requirements rather than estimating individual intake; numerous interventions were introduced to mitigate the effect; exposure from drinking water is confounded with other sources of lead in older houses; and the period of potential exposure was limited and variable.

Significance of teeth lead accumulation in age estimation

“…22 Other possible sources of lead contamination include frequent contaminated food consumption in the open atmosphere, 19 and exposure to residential paint in older buildings. 23 The mean lead level in the current series (6.24 mg/g) is much higher than previous reported figures from Kuwait in the late 90s (2.21e2.50 mg/g). 19 This is even though our series was carried out on urban and suburban population aged between 11 and 74 years, whereas the previous study included industrial and suburban population aged between 3 and 74 years.…”

Drinking water: a major source of lead exposure in Karachi, Pakistan

“…Lead contamination of drinking water supplies can have deleterious effects on multiple organ systems, including the nervous, haematopoietic, renal, endocrine and reproductive systems, especially in children [1][2][3][4][5]. The principal routes of exposure and absorption of lead are through ingestion and inhalation, and around 35% to 50% of lead in drinking water gets absorbed in adults, a figure that can rise to 60% in children [6].…”

Cornerstones of Toxicology

“…Just recently, Virginia Tech University researchers brought proof of high lead levels in Flint, Michigan, water to public attention in September 2015, performing water tests in more than 250 Flint homes. Lead levels were high enough, up to 38 μg/dl, to warrant urgent government action (https://www.rt.com/usa/327363-flint-children-blood-lead-water/); however, in a similar problem with Washington, DC’s tap water a little over a decade ago, hundreds of homes were found to have stratospheric lead levels of 300 parts per billion (ppb) or more (Guidotti et al 2007).…”