Elements That Influence the Development of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Children

Abstract

Various factors may have a role in the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although the specific pathophysiology of this disease is still not entirely understood, it is believed to be caused by a mix of genetic, maternal, dietary, and environmental factors. The effect of these factors can determine the severity of ADHD; for example, some of them are dose-dependent, but there is a typical pattern that all are known to be associated with either early childhood exposure or maternal exposure during pregnancy. Some factors share a similar mechanism of affecting pathways and increasing the risk of ADHD. ADHD is not a disorder that can be detected before symptoms appear in a child, making it more challenging to anticipate even if a child has been exposed to a known trigger. Environmental pollutants were investigated, and it was shown that there was a link between ADHD in childhood and exposure to pollutants throughout childhood or during pregnancy. It is well known that maternal health is a significant factor in the unborn child's development in many health aspects. The central nervous system (CNS) is a primary system that can suffer irreversible damage from health conditions, stress, depression, or specific nutritional deficiency when the pregnant mother is subjected to these conditions. Even though numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the probable causes of ADHD, with some of them having robust findings, no conclusive explanation can be provided to identify a definitive cause or a risk factor.

Association of Prenatal Exposure to Benzodiazepines With Development of Autism Spectrum and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders

“…Covariates were selected based on their relevance to children and outcomes and were categorized into child covariates (year of birth, 6 gestational age, parity, low-income family status), maternal covariates (nationality [ie, Taiwanese or non-Taiwanese], 16 age at the index birth, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal opioid drug use [Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical code N02A], and history of any mental disorders 17 [ ICD-9 codes 290-319 and ICD-10 codes F01-F99]), and paternal covariates (nationality, age at the index birth, and history of any mental disorders). Maternal and paternal covariates were considered time-varying covariates, and time before the conception date of each child was the covariate assessment period.…”

“…age at the index birth, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal opioid drug use [Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical code N02A], and history of any mental disorders17 [ICD-9 codes 290-319 and ICD-10 codes F01-F99]), and paternal covariates (nationality, age at the index birth, and history of any mental disorders). Maternal and paternal covariates were considered time-varying covariates, and time before the conception date of each child was the covariate assessment period.…”

Behavior play therapy untuk meningkatkan atensi pada anak Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

“…Anak-anak dengan ADHD tidak terbukti mengalami kerusakan berat di otak (Karic et al, 2019). Faktor yang dapat memunculkan gejala ADHD adalah faktor prenatal, seperti infeksi, keracunan logam berat, kelahiran prematur, trauma kelahiran maupun komplikasi kehamilan (Yusuf et al, 2022). Ada beberapa tempat di otak yang berfungsi abnormal pada individu dengan ADHD yakni meliputi regio cortex prefrontalis, cortex frontalis, cerebellum, corpus callosum dan dua daerah ganglia basalis yakni globus pallidus dan nucleus caudatus (Gehricke et al, 2017).…”

The Influence of Prenatal Environmental Factors on the Risk and Development of ADHD: Insights from Epidemiological and Neurodevelopmental Research - Review

“…Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood, characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. Being the most common psychiatric disorder in children, ADHD often persists into adulthood and is estimated to affect approximately 5% of children under 18 and 2.5% of adults worldwide [2,3]. ADHD is associated with a wide range of other mental health problems, including mood disorders, personality disorders, antisocial behavior, self-harm, and substance abuse [4].…”