Electron Probe Analysis of Human Skin: Element Concentration Profiles

Warner, R.R.; Myers, M. C.; Taylor, Dennis A.

doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12462576

Cited by 52 publications

(40 citation statements)

References 35 publications

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“…Sections, extracted material and/or whole mount specimens are imaged in a TEM or STEM during the analysis; the method has been used to compare elements and diffusible ions in different epidermal layers in normal [157,158] and diseased epidermis [134,159], to assay for the presence of S in various components of the granular cell [56], to evaluate the role of Ca and S in the hardness ofthe nail [133], to compare elemental preservation using various modes of tissue fixation [160], and to evaluate the water concentration across the epidermis [161] A highly sensitive method for simultaneous analysis of elements with an atomic number greater than 14 using freeze dried sections of skin bombarded with protons instead of electrons; because ofthe limited impedence of protons in passing through the specimen (hence negligible background) the method is highly sensitive for heavy elements and trace elements whicb can be measured to a level of 1 ppm. A profile of elements across the normal and psoriatic epidermis has been made using PIXE [162] and measurement ofthe trace elements in hair [135] have obtained using tbis method X-ray images of paraffin-embedded sections can be prepared using historadiography.…”

Section: -D Reconstructionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Biologic Structure and Function: Perspectives on Morphologic Approaches to the Study of the Granular Layer Keratinocyte.

Holbrook¹

1989

J Invest Dermatol

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S tephen Rothman [1] wrote: "Modern dermatology has been built on the solid pillars of precise macro-and microscopic observation, accurate recording and meaningful interpretation ofthe findings. No natural science can exist without direct observation of natural phenomena, and dermatology has become a great discipline because we have had so many good observers." He went on to state further that "... whereas the immense knowledge acquired by the classical descriptive methods is still rapidly increasing, the application of experimental methods to dermatologic problems is a relatively young and undeveloped approach." These statements acknowledge the importance of observation and description (usually thought of as features of morphology) in clinical dermatology and in descriptive dermatologic research, but were made before he could recognize the value of morphology to experimental studies as well. Unfortunately, Dr. Rothman did not see the remarkable expansion in dermatologic research that has taken place within even the last 20 years, an eta in which descriptive biology and experimental biology are not necessarily separate entities or even parallel concepts. Morphology is simply one of many approaches --sets of tools -that can be used to solve problems in biology.Morphology is often the starting point of an investigation. Understanding the structure of a cell or tissue provides a framework on which other kinds of data can be applied. A morphologic study, however, need not be synonomous with description and qualitative investigation. Many ofthe techniques used by morphologists provide compositional information (presence/absence of a chemical compound) on a structural substrate (location within the cell or tissue) which, in turn, permits interpretation of function. For example, electron microscopic autoradiography can be used to identify the site of incorporation of a radiolabeled amino acid within the tissue and the specific cell and organelle in which it is utilized, or x-ray microanalysis can reveal the elemental composition of parts of cells or different cells within a tissue. Through the use of techniques like morphometry and stereology, morphologic studies can also be quantitative. To continue the example from above, the volume density ofthe radiolabeled organelte can he determined for a cell or tissue by means of selective sampling and prescribed methods of counting, thus allowing for quantitation and statistical analysis when comparing experimental data. Morphology should not have the limited connotation of providing purely descriptive information.The structure and composition of a tissue can provide insight into its function. As stated by Braverman and Braverman [2], "a major aim of biological work is to correlate structure with function in order to understand how tissues work." The goal in the present paper, as indicated by its title, is to support this statement as we review the use of morphologic approaches to understand skin hiology, selecting as an illustration the progress that has been made in understan...

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Section: -D Reconstructionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Biologic Structure and Function: Perspectives on Morphologic Approaches to the Study of the Granular Layer Keratinocyte.

Holbrook¹

1989

J Invest Dermatol

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“…There is evidence for a high concentration of solutes (Na ϩ , K ϩ , and Cl Ϫ ) and a low concentration of water Ref. 10) in the superficial stratum corneum, producing in the steady-state gradients of both solutes and water from the skin surface to the viable epidermal keratinocytes (11)(12)(13). Although transepithelial fluid transporting properties have been studied extensively in various mammalian epithelia, the molecular mechanisms of fluid transport across epidermal keratinocyte layers remain poorly understood, as is the relationship between keratinocyte fluid transport and stratum corneum hydration.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Impaired Stratum Corneum Hydration in Mice Lacking Epidermal Water Channel Aquaporin-3

Ma¹,

Hara²,

Sougrat³

et al. 2002

Journal of Biological Chemistry

243

199

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The water and solute transporting properties of the epidermis have been proposed to be important determinants of skin moisture content and barrier properties. The water/small solute-transporting protein aquaporin-3 (AQP3) was found by immunofluorescence and immunogold electron microscopy to be expressed at the plasma membrane of epidermal keratinocytes in mouse skin. We studied the role of AQP3 in stratum corneum (SC) hydration by comparative measurements in wildtype and AQP3 null mice generated in a hairless SKH1 genetic background. The hairless AQP3 null mice had normal perinatal survival, growth, and serum chemistries but were polyuric because of defective urinary concentrating ability. AQP3 deletion resulted in a >4-fold reduced osmotic water permeability and >2-fold reduced glycerol permeability in epidermis. Epidermal, dermal, and SC thickness and morphology were not grossly affected by AQP3 deletion. Surface conductance measurements showed remarkably reduced SC water content in AQP3 null mice in the hairless genetic background (165 ؎ 10 versus 269 ؎ 12 microsiemens (S), p < 0.001), as well as in a CD1 genetic background (209 ؎ 21 versus 469 ؎ 11 S). Reduced SC hydration was seen from 3 days after birth. SC hydration in hairless wildtype and AQP3 null mice was reduced to comparable levels (90 -100 S) after a 24-h exposure to a dry atmosphere, but the difference was increased when surface evaporation was prevented by occlusion or exposure to a humidified atmosphere (179 ؎ 13 versus 441 ؎ 34 S). Conductance measurements after serial tape stripping suggested reduced water content throughout the SC in AQP3 null mice. Water sorption-desorption experiments indicated reduced water holding capacity in the SC of AQP3 null mice. The impaired skin hydration in AQP3 null mice provides the first functional evidence for the involvement of AQP3 in skin physiology. Modulation of AQP3 expression or function may thus alter epidermal moisture content and water loss in skin diseases.The water content of the stratum corneum is an important determinant of the appearance, physical properties, and barrier function of the skin (1-3). The stratum corneum, the most superficial layer of skin, consists of layers of flattened corneocytes (dead epidermal cells) embedded in a lipid-rich matrix containing specialized proteins and lipids (4). Abnormalities of stratum corneum hydration are seen in a variety of hereditary and acquired skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis (5), eczema (6), psoriasis (7), senile xerosis (8), and hereditary ichthyosis (9). Hydration of the stratum corneum could in principle be determined by a number of factors including the concentration of water-retaining osmolytes, the water and solute transporting properties of the underlying layers of viable epidermal keratinocytes, and the barrier properties of the stratum corneum. There is evidence for a high concentration of solutes (Na ϩ , K ϩ , and Cl Ϫ ) and a low concentration of water (13-35%, Ref. 10) in the superficial stratum corneum, producing in the steady-st...

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“…, 1984;Warner et al, 1988);suggesting that the proper ionic environment is important in epidermal homeostasis. Calcium plays a n important role in the proliferation of a variety of cell types, particularly epithelial cells, and is also important for the attachment of adherent cells to their substrata (Ruoslahti and Pierschbacher, 1987).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Magnesium and phosphate enrichment of culture medium stimulates the proliferation of epidermal cells from newborn and adult mice

Tennenbaum

Yuspa

Kapitulnik

1990

Journal Cellular Physiology

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The proliferation and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells can be sequentially analyzed by modification of extracellular calcium. Newborn cells cultured in low calcium medium (less than 0.1 mM) proliferate as a monolayer and maintain a typical basal cell phenotype in culture but have a limited proliferative capacity and short lifespan. Elevation of the magnesium content of the culture medium from 1 to 5 mM stimulated the proliferation of newborn mouse (1-3 days old) keratinocytes. Maximal DNA synthesis rates, as determined on day 5 of culture, were up to 2-3-fold higher in the magnesium-enriched cultures. Exposure to high magnesium caused 3-4-fold increases in the DNA content of newborn keratinocyte cultures, and extended the confluent phase of epidermal cell growth to over 10 days. Other divalent cations (strontium, copper, zinc, nickel, beryllium, and barium) did not improve keratinocyte growth in culture. Keratinocytes from the tail skin of adult (3 months old) mice displayed an absolute requirement for high phosphate in the culture medium. The medium containing an optimal (10 mM) phosphate concentration prevented the cell detachment caused by the standard low (1 mM) phosphate medium, and in combination with an elevated magnesium content (10-15 mM) it markedly increased both DNA synthesis rates and DNA content of the adult cell cultures. Optimally growing, newborn or adult cultures contained less cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle and more cells in S and G2 +M. The addition of phosphate and magnesium per se did not induce keratinocyte differentiation and did not interfere with the high calcium (1 mM)-induced differentiation.

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Electron Probe Analysis of Human Skin: Element Concentration Profiles

Cited by 52 publications

References 35 publications

Biologic Structure and Function: Perspectives on Morphologic Approaches to the Study of the Granular Layer Keratinocyte.

Biologic Structure and Function: Perspectives on Morphologic Approaches to the Study of the Granular Layer Keratinocyte.

Impaired Stratum Corneum Hydration in Mice Lacking Epidermal Water Channel Aquaporin-3

Magnesium and phosphate enrichment of culture medium stimulates the proliferation of epidermal cells from newborn and adult mice

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