Any kind of device or machine needs a substrate, energy, and information signals. If we wish to operate at the nanometer scale, we must use molecules as substrate. Molecules, indeed, are nanometer-sized entities that, particularly when suitably assembled in supramolecular systems, can exploit energy and signals to operate as devices and machines.A general scheme for the operation of molecule-based devices and machines is shown in Figure 2.1a. We start with a species A, whose properties can be monitored (read) by a suitable input, input reading, I r (A) (e.g., absorption spectroscopy), which generates an output, output reading, O r (A). Then, we write an information on A by an energy input, input writing, I w (A ! B), which converts A into B. Since A and B are molecules, the writing process must be a chemical reaction [1]. Reading the system with I r (B) after applying I w yields an output, O r (B), that reveals the new state of the system.In the case of a machine, I w is responsible for the operation, while I r and O r monitor the machine movement. In the case of an information-processing device, the performed function is based on the relationship among I r , O r , and I w (Chapter 9).The most important energy inputs to write on molecules are in nature electronic (I e w ), photonic (I p w ), and chemical (I c w ) [2]. The reading inputs I r are multifarious; indeed, any kind of physical signals can be used. Electronic, photonic, and chemical outputs are most often used for several reasons.The operation of a molecular device or machine relies on cause/effect relationship between writing inputs and the kind of process obtained (as revealed by reading techniques). Therefore, it may be useful to categorize molecular devices and machines according to the nature of the cause (electronic, photonic, or chemical input) and the nature of the effect (electronic, photonic, or chemical process that follows). In the simplest case, input and resulting process have the same nature: an electronic input can generate release of an electron (molecular electronics), the absorption of a photon can generate emission of a photon (molecular photonics), and a chemical input can generate a chemical reaction (molecular chemionics). It is also possible, j23 Molecular Devices and Machines. Concepts and Perspectives for the Nanoworld. 2 nd Ed.