“…In contrast, intrinsic activity relates to the effectiveness of the active site, which is influenced by the electronic structure of the electrocatalysts. Rational catalyst design, which involves methods like introducing various vacancies and heteroatoms, crafting specific structures, exposing active crystal facets, inducing amorphization, and fabricating novel heterointerfaces, serves as an effective means to boost apparent activity and/or enhance intrinsic activity. − Moreover, other strategies such as altering electrolytes, improving mass transfer rates, and devising specific electrolytic systems can also contribute to achieving high NRR performance. − Over the past few decades, these strategies have been successfully applied in the design of heterogeneous electrocatalysts for various applications including the HER, , oxygen evolution reaction (OER), , oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), , and carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO 2 RR). − …”