Electrochemical Biosensors for the Detection of Antibiotics in Milk: Recent Trends and Future Perspectives

Abstract

Antibiotics have emerged as ground-breaking medications for the treatment of infectious diseases, but due to the excessive use of antibiotics, some drugs have developed resistance to microorganisms. Because of their structural complexity, most antibiotics are excreted unchanged, polluting the water, soil, and natural resources. Additionally, food items are being polluted through the widespread use of antibiotics in animal feed. The normal concentrations of antibiotics in environmental samples typically vary from ng to g/L. Antibiotic residues in excess of these values can pose major risks the development of illnesses and infections/diseases. According to estimates, 300 million people will die prematurely in the next three decades (by 2050), and the WHO has proclaimed “antibiotic resistance” to be a severe economic and sociological hazard to public health. Several antibiotics have been recognised as possible environmental pollutants (EMA) and their detection in various matrices such as food, milk, and environmental samples is being investigated. Currently, chromatographic techniques coupled with different detectors (e.g., HPLC, LC-MS) are typically used for antibiotic analysis. Other screening methods include optical methods, ELISA, electrophoresis, biosensors, etc. To minimise the problems associated with antibiotics (i.e., the development of AMR) and the currently available analytical methods, electrochemical platforms have been investigated, and can provide a cost-effective, rapid and portable alternative. Despite the significant progress in this field, further developments are necessary to advance electrochemical sensors, e.g., through the use of multi-functional nanomaterials and advanced (bio)materials to ensure efficient detection, sensitivity, portability, and reliability. This review summarises the use of electrochemical biosensors for the detection of antibiotics in milk/milk products and presents a brief introduction to antibiotics and AMR followed by developments in the field of electrochemical biosensors based on (i) immunosensor, (ii) aptamer (iii) MIP, (iv) enzyme, (v) whole-cell and (vi) direct electrochemical approaches. The role of nanomaterials and sensor fabrication is discussed wherever necessary. Finally, the review discusses the challenges encountered and future perspectives. This review can serve as an insightful source of information, enhancing the awareness of the role of electrochemical biosensors in providing information for the preservation of the health of the public, of animals, and of our environment, globally.

Review of Detection Limits for Various Techniques for Bacterial Detection in Food Samples

“…In addition, nanomaterials modify the electrode surface to promote electron transfer kinetics and hence result in rapid and reliable electrochemical signals and detection. The unique properties of nanomaterials, such as size, structure, conductivity and catalytic activity, contribute to the overall performance of electrochemical biosensors for bacterial detection [206][207][208][209]. To make a comparison of PCR, LFIA and electrochemical methods for bacterial detection, Table 4 is listed below.…”

Nanotechnology innovations for increasing the productivity of poultry and the prospective of nanobiosensors

“…They can identify specific biomarkers or genetic material associated with these diseases, allowing for early and accurate diagnosis. Food safety: Nanobiosensors help monitor poultry products' safety by detecting contaminants like antibiotics, pesticides or heavy metals (N. A. Singh et al., 2023 ; Singh, 2021 ). They can quickly identify and quantify these substances, ensuring compliance with regulatory standards.…”

Voltametric Sensor Based on Magnetic Chitosan Acetylindole-Based Nanocomposite for the Determination of Sulfamethazine

“…In recent years, several methods have been employed for detecting sulfonamides and their derivatives, such as electrophoresis , and various chromatographic methods. − Although these methods are effective and offer the required limit of detection, their main disadvantages include uneconomical measurements. As a result, researchers have increasingly focused on developing novel electrochemical devices due to their advantageous characteristics, including rapid analysis, excellent sensitivity, enhanced selectivity, lower cost, and lower limits of detection (LOD). − A set of modified electrodes for electrochemical detection of SMZ have been reported, including gold electrodes improved by multiwalled carbon nanotubes and/or graphene oxide nanoribbons, glassy carbon electrodes (GCEs) modified with graphene oxides coated with the core–shell of a Cu–Ag composite, gold nanoparticles, and/or strontium niobium composite, − a GCE in the form of a network of graphite-nitride nanosheets modified with strontium tungstate nanospheres, and cerium vanadate anchored to multiwalled carbon nanotubes as a modifier for a GCE . Each approach exhibits its own sensitivity, selectivity, and detection limits while also facing specific interferences and challenges.…”