Electrical energy network efficiencies evaluation as milestones for smart grids development: Italy's case study

Energy Sustainability Analysis (ESA) of Energy-Producing Processes: A Case Study on Distributed H2 Production

“…This contribution, which is present in the AM (see Table 1), could be an energy expenditure on-or off-site, depending on the type of process. If a plant is equipped with a cogeneration plant, capable of producing the two most used direct energy qualities, thermal energy, and electricity, the cost of E ind to prod edir is the energy expenditure associated to the cogeneration plant (on-site), while if the energy arrives at the plant from an off-site point, e.g., the national electricity grid, the E ind to prod edir contribution can be estimated using the CED of the electrical production mix as well as other relevant stage efficiencies [12].…”

“…Per capita, primary energy use differs among countries and regions, and the global average has significantly increased from 1970 to 2013, by more than 43%, passing from 1.37 to 1.89 (toe/(p•y)). In 2015, the European Union annual per capita average was c. 3.21 toe [10], although the energy efficiency directive (EED) 2012/27/EU [11] has set an ambitious framework to reduce energy consumption, it seeks to reduce not only the consumption of primary energy but also of final consumption [12], with target values of approximately 1.99 and 1.45 (toe/(p•y)) for 2020, respectively.…”

“…The stages of the energy trajectory (see Figure 1) can be briefly described as: (i) primary energy, which is a resource extracted from ground, sun, air, water bodies, which can be converted into (ii) secondary energy, as energy carriers to be transported or to be saved in different storage units, until finally distributed to consumers as (iii) energy services to cover all societal energy requirements. At the point of utilization, other technologies can further convert the energy delivered into services to feed civilization needs such as food production, mobility, heating, cooling, lighting, among others [12], these transformations also merit attention, particularly energy-producing processes (energy harvesting and transforming plants). Considering this trajectory, many of the worldwide efforts have sought to tackle only the first stage, although there are different primary sources available today (Figure 1), centering the debate on the renewability [15] of these sources excludes other important aspects, such as the downstream stages until the end-user is reached.…”