“…Instead, it is the product of a history of constant struggles, in which children have been, for example, workers and delinquents, participants in complex forms of autonomous social organization in which families answer to complex non-nuclear formats, such as the matriarchal Afro-Brazilian family mentioned by Segato (2007); with states that colonial contexts have shaped, and with epistemological and ethical frames in constant tension-as far as cultural differences are concerned-with punitive models. Examples are child labor and the battles of the International Labour Organisation with child worker organizations in Bolivia (Pedraza, 2007); the forms of upbringing practiced by the original nations of the South American altiplano (Olivares, 2019), reproved by Western justice models; or the forms of motherhood that allowed children to circulate outside the ambit of the family as a form of social and economic protection, categorized as child abandonment according to traditional Western logic (Milanich, 2001). Hart (2008) will recognize the problem of the cultural limitations of his own ladder model, distinguishing between individualistic and collectivist cultures.…”