Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids as inflammation-modulating and lipid homeostasis influencing nutraceuticals: A review

Abstract

PPAR SREBP Cholesterol Functional foods A B S T R A C T The present review summarizes the underlying biochemical and molecular mechanisms that can explain cardioprotective effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and their competition with arachidonic acid as a substrate of cyclooxygenase COX-2 and lipoxygenase 5-LOX, and modulation of the signaling pathways of the transcription factors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), sterol-response element binding protein (SREBP) and nuclear factor jB (NF-jB). Consequences, namely decreased production of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and cytokines, stimulation of b-oxidation, inhibition of fatty acid synthesis and down-regulation of the genes coding for enzymes of cholesterol synthesis and uptake are reviewed. Factors influencing responses of an organism to EPA/DHA intake are discussed and these include species, sex, dose and time interval of administration. Examples of food enrichment with EPA + DHA are presented under consideration of a low efficiency of conversion of a-linolenic acid to EPA (DHA).

Fortification of dahi (Indian yoghurt) with omega-3 fatty acids using microencapsulated flaxseed oil microcapsules

“…However, recently several researchers have challenged it on the basis of outcomes of epidemiological and clinical studies, and concluded that linoleic acid (LA: ω-6) was not involved in reduction of CHD, and may possibly increase it (Ramsden et al 2010;Komprda 2012) due to production of 2-and 4-series prostaglandins and prostacyclin compounds. Indeed several risk factors such as physical inactivity, suboptimal diet, smoking, stress and increased use of alcohol are attributable to chronic diseases.…”

A Comparison of the Lipid-lowering Effects of Four Different n-3 Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids in HepG2 Cells

“…Changes in these lipid profiles are related to the development of metabolic syndromes such as diabetes and atherosclerosis 4 6 . n-3HUFA intake also has a significant effect on inflammation 7 . As a result, fish gather significant attention as healthy food; many kinds of foods and a medicine containing n-3HUFAs are available on the market and are applied practically.…”

Dietary Omega-3 Intakes in Southern African American and Southern Caucasian Women

“…ALA is a limiting factor in dietary omega-3 consumption because it must be converted to EPA and DHA to meet the body's demand for omega-3 fatty acids. As this conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is not an efficient process, it is imperative that EPA and DHA be consumed via dietary sources [11,12]. Dietary sources of EPA and DHA are very limited to specific food items, which leads to low dietary consumption depending on the geographical region and dietary preferences.…”

“…Even if one meets the ALA recommendation, the body must undergo the inefficient conversion process to EPA and DHA. In a population where seafood is a staple, it is imperative to consider EPA and DHA recommendations, which currently are not established [11,21].…”

“…Achieving recommended levels of omega-3 PUFA is suggested to maintain optimal health and reduce the risk of diet induced metabolic diseases [8]. As a metabolic pathway, the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is an inefficient method [11,12]. Therefore, in order to impart the benefits of omega-3 fatty acids, it is necessary to consume EPA and DHA via dietary sources [8,13].…”