Effects of sea salt intake on metabolites, steroid hormones, and gut microbiota in rats

Abstract

High salt intake is positively linked to many health problems, but the effect of mineral-rich sea salt (SS) has rarely been studied. To better understand the physiological effects of SS intake, the changes in general characteristics, metabolites, steroid hormones, and gut microbiota of SS-fed rats were investigated. Male rats were fed either a normal diet (ND, control) or ND containing 1% SS or 4% SS for 5 weeks. SS intake decreased fat, spleen, liver, and body weight, and increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN), water intake, and gut salt content. Accumulated gut salt content led to a decrease in beneficial bacteria, such as Lachnospiraceae and Lactobacillus, but an increase in potentially harmful bacteria, resulting in a change in lipid metabolites associated with gut health. Interestingly, most renal lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs) associated with many renal functions were dramatically decreased and female hormones, such as estrogens, were significantly more altered than the male hormones by high SS intake. Although further investigation is needed, these data suggest that high SS intake could be positively linked to kidney dysfunction and gut health problems, and salt-related physiological changes may be sex-specific. Additionally, these data will be useful to better under-stand the physiological effects of SS intake.

Behind vegan label: What's really in some certified vegan products in Brazil

“…The sea salt is present in the ingredient lists of breads ( n = 6), cookies and crackers ( n = 1), meat substitutes ( n = 16), and plant‐based beverages ( n = 1). Produced by the evaporation of sea water by wind and sunlight, followed by a ripening process to remove bitterness (Chanmuang et al ., 2022), sea salt has been used in industrialised products as a sodium reduction strategy. However, there is still limited literature evidence on the relationship between its consumption as a replacement for refined salt and its effect on blood pressure regulation.…”

Impact on Fecal Microbiota and Health-Related Markers of an Intervention Focused on Improving Eating Behavior in People at Risk of Food Insecurity

“…Volunteers rated each item on an intensity scale ranging from 0 to 3, with a maximum possible score of 63 points. The severity of depressive symptoms was categorized as minimal (0-13 points), mild (14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19), moderate (20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28), or severe (29-63) using previously established references [59,60].…”

“…The transition from a Westernized diet to a Mediterranean-type pattern, for 4 weeks, with constant energy intake and physical activity has shown noticeable changes in the intestinal microbiome in people with cardiometabolic risk, with these changes being proportional to the degree of adherence [ 22 ]. Regarding individual dietary components, a higher intake of whole grain cereals was associated with an increase in Bifidobacteria in healthy humans [ 23 ], whereas a high salt ingestion in experimental animals was linked to a decrease in Lactobacillus and Prevotellaceae and to an enrichment in Erysipelotrichaceae and Oscillospiraceae [ 24 , 25 ]. While Erysipelotrichaceae has been associated with inflammation [ 26 ], higher levels of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli are recognized as beneficial for human health, improving outcomes such as obesity and depression [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].…”