Effects of orally administered hormonal contraceptives on the musculoskeletal system of healthy premenopausal women—A systematic review

Abstract

Introduction The musculoskeletal system (MSK) is one of the extragonadal target tissues of sex hormones: osteoblasts and osteocytes express estrogen receptors, while in fibroblasts of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and myocytes of the vastus lateralis muscle (MVL), estrogen and progesterone receptors can be detected by immunoassay. Indeed, upon binding of sex hormones to the extragonadal receptors, the MSK seems to respond to varying levels of sex hormones with structural adaptation. Hormonal contraceptives can affect the musculoskeletal system; however, there is a lack of high‐quality studies, and no recommendation for female athletes exists. Material and Methods This is a systematic review of publications on the effects of oral hormonal contraceptives on the biomechanical properties of tendons, muscles and ligaments, muscle strength, and soft tissue regeneration. A systematic database search was performed using MESH keywords and PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses) methodology in Pubmed and Cochrane to identify studies investigating the influence of oral hormonal contraceptives on muscles, tendons, and ligaments of healthy, adult, premenopausal women. The risk of bias in the studies included was assessed by two independent researchers using the ROBINS‐I Tool. Results Nine comparative studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria. Endpoints were muscle strength and biomechanical tissue properties. No significant influence of oral hormonal contraceptives on muscle strength was found, although general muscle growth and Type I fiber growth were found to be significantly increased in a dose‐dependent manner. There was a negative effect on regeneration of muscle strength after exercise. The stiffness of tendons remained unchanged, while their size adaptation to load increased. Conclusion The anabolic effect could be beneficial for specific sports, whereas reduced muscle regeneration could be disadvantageous for women exercising with high‐performance demands. The different effects on tendons and ligaments and the functional consequences of altered ligament and muscle stiffness, especially with regard to synthetic hormones, should be further investigated.

Effect of Anthropometric Parameters on Achilles Tendon Stiffness of Professional Athletes Measured by Shear Wave Elastography

“…Nine female professional athletes in our study took an oral hormonal contraceptive and this constitutes future work. Oral contraceptives have an impact on the natural fluctuation of hormones [49][50][51]. However, the exact effect on tendon stiffness is still a topic under debate due to less high-quality studies and contradictive results [51][52][53].…”

“…Oral contraceptives have an impact on the natural fluctuation of hormones [49][50][51]. However, the exact effect on tendon stiffness is still a topic under debate due to less high-quality studies and contradictive results [51][52][53]. Other factors such as low energy availability and psychological stress, which can lead to higher cortisol levels and may also affect tissue properties, need to be considered [53,54].…”