Effects of Human Disturbance on Terrestrial Apex Predators

Abstract

The effects of human disturbance spread over virtually all ecosystems and ecological communities on Earth. In this review, we focus on the effects of human disturbance on terrestrial apex predators. We summarize their ecological role in nature and how they respond to different sources of human disturbance. Apex predators control their prey and smaller predators numerically and via behavioral changes to avoid predation risk, which in turn can affect lower trophic levels. Crucially, reducing population numbers and triggering behavioral responses are also the effects that human disturbance causes to apex predators, which may in turn influence their ecological role. Some populations continue to be at the brink of extinction, but others are partially recovering former ranges, via natural recolonization and through reintroductions. Carnivore recovery is both good news for conservation and a challenge for management, particularly when recovery occurs in human-dominated landscapes. Therefore, we conclude by discussing several management considerations that, adapted to local contexts, may favor the recovery of apex predator populations and their ecological functions in nature.

Wolf Conservation and Management in Spain, An Open Debate

“…Although conservation and management plans based on the ecological role of wolves have gained support in different ecosystems (Hebblewhite et al, 2005;Ordiz et al, 2021), further steps are needed to put theory in practice, a concern that applies for wolves in Spain and for this and other species elsewhere. Restricting wolf lethal control and favoring natural predator-prey interactions by reducing depredation on properly protected livestock should help achieve the goals mentioned above; namely, favoring the recovery of the species and its role in nature and its acceptability by the general public.…”

“…However, conflicts often involve groups of people with different opinions on wildlife, i.e., they are rather "humanhuman" conflicts over conservation goals (Redpath et al, 2013). Large carnivores can affect some human activities and trigger mixed perceptions from stakeholders (Redpath et al, 2013;Ordiz et al, 2021). Large carnivore management, especially wolf management, plays out in heated debates over the range of the species (Mech, 1995;Clark et al, 1996;Skogen and Krange, 2003;Treves and Karanth, 2003;Bergstrom et al, 2009;Redpath et al, 2017), and Spain is no exception.…”

“…Furthermore, prevention of damage to livestock is crucial to avoid conflict and reduce social pressure for carnivore lethal management (Ordiz et al, 2021). Lethal control does not necessarily reduce depredation, as shown in different areas, including Spain (Fernández-Gil et al, 2016).…”

“…We also highlight the factors and scientific data that in our opinion should be most relevant to guide the conservation-oriented management of an apex predator. (Hebblewhite et al, 2005;Terborgh and Estes, 2010;Ordiz et al, 2021). In Europe, the Bern Convention (Council of Europe 1979) and the Habitats Directive (European Union 1992) set the stage for wolf management in EU countries, which must use those rules to guide the drafting of national legislation.…”

Impact of Predator Exclusion and Habitat on Seroprevalence of New World Orthohantavirus Harbored by Two Sympatric Rodents within the Interior Atlantic Forest

“…Predation has a major impact on the structure of natural communities and population growth rate of rodents [ 58 ]. The reduction of natural predation is one of the most significant effects of anthropogenic action in rural landscapes [ 59 , 60 ]. We hypothesized that predator exclusion would alter species diversity, rodent abundance, and thus the prevalence of hantaviruses among resident rodent reservoir populations.…”