“…A significant body of research has tied DD to addictive behaviors, including tobacco use (MacKillop et al, 2011; Reynolds, 2006). A number of research groups have found that smokers show greater DD than nonsmokers (e.g., Baker et al, 2003; Bickel et al, 1999; Businelle et al, 2010; Heymann & Gibb 2006; Johnson et al, 2007; Mitchell & Wilson, 2012; Ohmura et al 2005; Reynolds & Fields, 2012; Reynolds et al, 2004; Stillwell & Tunney 2012; Wing et al, 2012). Amongst smokers, DD appears to be higher among the more nicotine dependent (e.g., Amlung & MacKillop 2014; Sweitzer et al, 2008), can be increased by nicotine deprivation (Field et al, 2006), and may predict treatment failure (e.g., Krishnan-Sarin et al, 2007; Sheffer et al, 2012).…”