Effectiveness of Sensorimotor and Task-Oriented Handwriting Intervention in Elementary School-Aged Students with Handwriting Difficulties

Abstract

key words: treatment effectiveness, higher-level functions, handwriting AbstrActThe effects of two handwriting intervention programs for students with handwriting difficulties were compared. Students in grades 2 to 4 were randomly assigned to a sensorimotor intervention (n = 19), a task-oriented intervention (n = 19), or a nontreatment control group (n = 17). Both intervention programs also included "higher-level" functions (e.g., cognitive or executive functions). Handwriting speed and legibility were measured before, immediately after (Stage 1), and 4 months after (Stage 2) intervention. At Stage 1, statistically significant gains in handwriting performance were noted in both intervention groups, but not in the control group. Additionally, the task-oriented group scored significantly higher than the control group in overall legibility. At Stage 2, statistically significant gains were noted in both intervention groups. Thus, although neither program was found to have an advantage in terms of its unique components, it appears that students with handwriting difficulties may benefit from intervention programs that include instruction in "higher-level" strategies to support and enhance their handwriting performance.

Effectiveness of an Integrated Handwriting Program for First-Grade Students: A Pilot Study

“…Handwriting intervention programs for typical students (Graham, Harris, & Fink, 2000), at-risk students Peterson & Nelson, 2003;Weintraub et al, 2009), and students with disabilities (Jongmans, LinthorstBakker, Westenberg, & Smits-Engelsman, 2003) have been researched. In a seminal study using at-risk first-grade students (N 5 144), Berninger et al (1997) demonstrated that neurodevelopmental training helped students improve the accuracy and legibility of letter formation.…”

“…It is also a complex skill that requires the integration of lower-level perceptual-motor skills (e.g., visual-motor coordination) and higher-level cognitive skills (e.g., language, executive function; Graham & Weintraub, 1996;Weintraub, Yinon, Hirsch, & Parush, 2009). Although some children appear to learn handwriting automatically, most children must be taught handwriting to achieve writing fluency.…”

Effects of a Classroom-Embedded Occupational Therapist–Teacher Handwriting Program for First-Grade Students

“…Specific handwriting interventions for students who struggle with handwriting have applied multisensory approaches (Case-Smith, 2002;Denton, Cope, & Moser, 2006;Schneck & Amundson, 2010) and cognitive strategies (Banks, Rodger, & Polatajko, 2008;Weintraub, Yinon, Hirsch, & Parush, 2009). In multisensory approaches, students practice the foundational sensory-motor skills of handwriting (e.g., through activities that require manipulation of small objects, haptic and visual perception, or visual-motor integration).…”

“…In interventions using cognitive strategies, students are visually or verbally cued on letter formation, provided systematic mnemonics, given opportunities to practice extensively, and provided extensive feedback. Handwriting interventions emphasizing cognitive strategies have emphasized student problem solving, self-regulation, and self-evaluation (e.g., Weintraub et al, 2009). Although these handwriting interventions have resulted in positive handwriting effects, they have not been well linked to the writing curriculum; that is, the interventions often emphasize letter formation without reinforcing the importance of legibility for writing and composition.…”

“…In summary, handwriting and writing instruction and intervention programs with evidence of effectiveness include practice of underlying sensorimotor skills (Case-Smith, 2002), visual cueing that promotes memory of letter formation (Berninger et al, , 2006, practice with reinforcement (Graham et al, 2000), specific mnemonics for letter formation (Graham et al, 2000), selfevaluation (Lane et al, 2008;Weintraub et al, 2009), and peer modeling and support (Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2006). These interventions are implemented individually or in small groups in sessions outside the classroom without full integration into the writing curriculum.…”