Effect of the pattern of food intake on human energy metabolism

Venne, Wilhelmine P.H.G. Verboeket-van de; Westerterp, K.R.; Kester, A.D.M.

doi:10.1079/bjn19930108

Cited by 67 publications

(45 citation statements)

References 28 publications

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“…This is supported by previous studies showing that total energy expenditure is not affected by meal frequency, which suggests that any effects of snack consumption on body weight are mediated through energy intake and not energy expenditure. 7,25,26 Surprisingly, we found that energy density had no effect on body weight changes. It was previously shown that energy density increased total daily energy intake.…”

Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 55%

Effects of snack consumption for 8 weeks on energy intake and body weight

2009

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Background: Consumption of snacks might contribute to the obesity epidemic. It is not clear how the moment of consumption and energy density of snacks can influence the compensatory response to consumption of snacks in the long term. Objective: To investigate the effects of snack consumption for 8 weeks on changes in body weight, emphasizing on moment of consumption and energy density. Design: In total, 16 men and 66 women (mean age 21.9 years (s.d. 0.3 year), mean body mass index 20.7 kg m À2 (s.d. 0.2 kg m À2 )) were randomly assigned to one of four parallel groups in a 2 Â 2 design: snacks consumed with or between meals and snacks having a low (o4 kJ g À1 ) or high (412 kJ g À1 ) energy density. For 8 weeks, subjects consumed mandatory snacks that provided 25% of energy requirements on each day. Body weight, body composition, physical activity level (PAL) and energy intake were measured in week 1 and week 8. Results: There were no differences in changes in body weight between the four groups. Moment of consumption (P ¼ 0.7), energy density (P ¼ 0.8) and interaction (P ¼ 0.09) did not influence body weight. Similarly, there were no differences in changes in body composition, PAL and energy intake between the four groups. Conclusions: Body weight after 8 weeks of snack consumption was not affected by moment of consumption and energy density of snacks. This finding suggests that consuming snacks that are high or low in energy density does not necessarily contribute to weight gain. Healthy, nonobese young adults may be able to maintain a normal body weight through an accurate compensation for the consumption of snacks.

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Section: Discussioncontrasting

confidence: 55%

Effects of snack consumption for 8 weeks on energy intake and body weight

2009

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“…Studies assessing the effect of meal frequency on total energy expenditure report no statistical association between these two factors. 15,[26][27][28] However, poor definition of the key variables hampers the interpretation and comparison of these previous studies.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Studies assessing the effect of meal frequency on total energy expenditure report no statistical association between these two factors. 15,[26][27][28] Studies evaluating the effect of meal frequency on thermic effect of foods (TEF) have suggested contradictory results. [29][30][31][32] It seems that Western populations are increasingly moving away from regular meals towards marked interdaily variation in frequency and time of consumption of food.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Decreased thermic effect of food after an irregular compared with a regular meal pattern in healthy lean women

2004

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OBJECTIVES:To investigate the impact of irregular meal frequency on body weight, energy intake, appetite and resting energy expenditure in healthy lean women. DESIGN: Nine healthy lean women aged 18-42 y participated in a randomised crossover trial consisting of three phases over a total of 43 days. Subjects attended the laboratory at the start and end of phases 1 and 3. In Phase 1 (14 days), subjects were asked to consume similar things as normal, but either on 6 occasions per day (regular meal pattern) or follow a variable predetermined meal frequency (between 3 and 9 meals/day) with the same total number of meals over the week. In Phase 2 (14 days), subjects continued their normal diet as a wash-out period. In Phase 3 (14 days), subjects followed the alternative meal pattern to that followed in Phase 1. Subjects recorded their food intake for three predetermined days during the irregular period when they were eating 9, 3 and 6 meals/day. They also recorded their food intake on the corresponding days during the regular meal pattern period. Subjects fasted overnight prior to each laboratory visit, at which fasting resting metabolic rate (RMR) was measured by open-circuit indirect calorimetry. Postprandial metabolic rate was then measured for 3 h after the consumption of a milkshake test meal (50% CHO, 15% protein and 35% fat of energy content). Subjects rated appetite before and after the test meal. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in body weight and 3-day mean energy intake between the regular and irregular meal pattern. In the irregular period, the mean energy intake on the day when 9 meals were eaten was significantly greater than when 6 or 3 meals were consumed (P ¼ 0.0001). There was no significant difference between the 3 days of the regular meal pattern. Subjective appetite measurement showed no significant differences before and after the test meal in all visits. Fasting RMR showed no significant differences over the experiment. The overall thermic effect of food (TEF) over the 3 h after the test meal was significantly lower after the irregular meal pattern (P ¼ 0.003). CONCLUSION: Irregular meal frequency led to a lower postprandial energy expenditure compared with the regular meal frequency, while the mean energy intake was not significantly different between the two. The reduced TEF with the irregular meal frequency may lead to weight gain in the long term.

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“…In addition, such measurement tools may 357 also lack both reliability and sensitivity when applied to subtle changes across all aspects of 358 physical activity thermogenesis (62) . While these issues of reliability and sensitivity have been 359 overcome using doubly-labelled water to verify no difference in total energy expenditure between 360 a two-versus seven-meal daily feeding pattern (63) , that finding is not specific to breakfast or physical activity thermogenesis per se, nor does the technique reveal temporal patterns of 362 activity.…”

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confidence: 99%

Is breakfast the most important meal of the day?

et al. 2016

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1The Bath Breakfast Project is a series of randomised controlled trials exploring the effects of 2 extended morning fasting on energy balance and health. These trials were categorically not 3 designed to answer whether or not breakfast is the most important meal of the day. However, this The broad field of nutrition and health is rife with myths, misconceptions and frequently 24 posed yet seemingly fundamental questions that we intuitively feel should have simple answers. 25Is a calorie a calorie? Is obesity due to eating too much or doing too little? Is breakfast the most 26 important meal of the day? Often there are simple answers, the first two being central to the 27 themes considered in this review and both absolutely yes (just as a second is a second, one 28

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Effect of the pattern of food intake on human energy metabolism

Cited by 67 publications

References 28 publications

Effects of snack consumption for 8 weeks on energy intake and body weight

Effects of snack consumption for 8 weeks on energy intake and body weight

Decreased thermic effect of food after an irregular compared with a regular meal pattern in healthy lean women

Is breakfast the most important meal of the day?

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