Effect of Immune Inducers on Nosema ceranae Multiplication and Their Impact on Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Survivorship and Behaviors

Abstract

Nosema disease is a major disease of honey bees caused by two species of microsporidia, Nosema apis and N. ceranae. Current control involves using antibiotics, which is undesirable because of possible antibiotic resistance and contamination. In this study, flagellin, zymosan, chitosan, and peptidoglycan were investigated as alternatives for controlling N. ceranae infections and for their effect on bee survivorship and behaviors. Chitosan and peptidoglycan significantly reduced the infection, and significantly increased survivorship of infected bees, with chitosan being more effective. However, neither compound altered the bees’ hygienic behavior, which was also not affected by the infection. Chitosan significantly increased pollen foraging and both compounds significantly increased non-pollen foraging compared to healthy and infected bees. Memory retention, evaluated with the proboscis extension reflex assay, was temporarily impaired by chitosan but was not affected by peptidoglycan, nor was it affected by N. ceranae infection compared to the non-infected bees. This study indicates that chitosan and peptidoglycan provide benefits by partially reducing N. ceranae spore numbers while increasing survivorship compared to N. ceranae infected bees. Also, chitosan and peptidoglycan improved aspects of foraging behavior even more than in healthy bees, showing that they may act as stimulators of important honey bee behaviors.

Effects of Prebiotics and Probiotics on Honey Bees (Apis mellifera) Infected with the Microsporidian Parasite Nosema ceranae

“…Screening a number of prebiotics and probiotics for their potential in controlling N. ceranae infections in honey bees showed that acacia gum, Protexin Concentrate single-strain, Protexin Concentrate multi-strain, and fructooligosaccharide treatments resulted in significant reductions of 67 to 31% in N. ceranae spore numbers. These results are in agreement with recent studies that have found other natural compounds such as natural plant extracts, mannan-oligosaccharide, cineol, zymosan, citral, naringenin, carvacrol, sulforaphane, chitosan, and peptidoglycan, that could reduce N. ceranae spore counts between 49 and 95% [12,47,48].…”

“…The fungus, Nosema ceranae, is an obligate intracellular parasite that apparently originated in the Asian honey bee Apis cerana and spread to the western honey bee, Apis mellifera [1]. Infection with this parasite occurs in the alimentary tract, and can have a number of detrimental effects on A. mellifera, including degeneration of the hypopharyngeal glands [2], degeneration of the midgut epithelium, reduced nutrient absorption and increased energetic stress [3,4], suppression of apoptosis [5], immunosuppression [6,7], early onset of foraging behavior [8], decreased homing and orientation [9,10], and decreased lifespan and food stores in colonies [11,12]. N. ceranae infections have been associated with honey bee colonies losses in North America [13][14][15] and Europe [16][17][18].…”

Seed Meals from Brassica nigra and Eruca sativa Control Artificial Nosema ceranae Infections in Apis mellifera

“…Moreover, the oxalic acid, which is generally administered to the colonies as a means to control Varroa destructor infestations, likewise showed efficacy against N. ceranae infections [ 17 , 28 , 29 ]. Moreover, sugars and protein administrated in sucrose syrup were effective to reduce N. ceranae infection in bees [ 30 ]. In detail, chitosan and peptidoglycan significantly reduced the nosemosis infection level in infected bees, and significantly increased their survivorship [ 30 ].…”

“…Moreover, sugars and protein administrated in sucrose syrup were effective to reduce N. ceranae infection in bees [ 30 ]. In detail, chitosan and peptidoglycan significantly reduced the nosemosis infection level in infected bees, and significantly increased their survivorship [ 30 ]. Even prebiotic and probiotic administration could be useful to reduce N. ceranae [ 31 , 32 ].…”

Association between the Microsatellite Ap243, AC117 and SV185 Polymorphisms and Nosema Disease in the Dark Forest Bee Apis mellifera mellifera

“…Although no significant effect of N. ceranae infections on hygienic behavior was detected [ 72 ], it is clear that natural resistance of honey bees to Nosema depends on many factors and the genetic variants of honey bees can play a relevant role. The purpose of this study was to identify associations between genetic variants of some microsatellite loci and Nosema infection/disease resistance in the dark forest bee Apis mellifera mellifera .…”