The abuse liability of the analgesic bicifadine was investigated in animal models used to predict the abuse potential of psychostimulants in humans. Bicifadine, cocaine, d-amphetamine, bupropion, and desipramine were evaluated for the production of cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects in rats. Cocaine, d-amphetamine, and bupropion dose-dependently and fully substituted for cocaine. Bicifadine and desipramine produced a maximum mean cocaine-lever selection of 80 and 69%, respectively, but doses yielding peak substitution strongly suppressed response rates. Microdialysis studies in normal waking rats indicated that d-amphetamine increased dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens and striatum to a much greater degree than bicifadine, but bicifadine increased 5-hydroxytryptamine levels in the nucleus accumbens and striatum more than d-amphetamine. Bicifadine was also tested for intravenous self-administration in rhesus monkeys experienced with cocaine administration. Reinforcing effects of bicifadine were observed in only two of four subjects, whereas cocaine, d-amphetamine, and bupropion served as reinforcers in all four monkeys. When evaluated under a progressive ratio procedure, no dose of bicifadine maintained responding to the extent of cocaine, d-amphetamine, or bupropion. The discriminative stimulus effects associated with bicifadine were similar, but not identical, to those of psychostimulants. Although bicifadine maintained self-administration behavior in some subjects, its reinforcing efficacy was very low relative to cocaine, d-amphetamine, and bupropion. These results are consistent with the microdialysis findings of lower dopamine levels and higher 5-hydroxytryptamine levels after administration of bicifadine relative to d-amphetamine. Overall, the current findings support a low abuse potential of bicifadine, more resembling that of antidepressants than psychostimulants.Abnormal levels of the monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression, neuropathic pain, obesity, and substance abuse. Compounds that inhibit one or more of the transporters for these monoamine neurotransmitters are used to treat many of these disorders. For example, selective inhibitors of 5-HT reuptake (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram) are effective, albeit imperfect, therapies for major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Vaswani et al., 2003). Agents that inhibit both 5-HT (SERT) and NE (NET) transporters (e.g., duloxetine and venlafaxine) not only are used to treat major depressive disorder but also are effective as analgesics, particularly in treating chronic neuropathic pain (Barkin and Barkin, 2005). Selective NET inhibitors (e.g., atomoxetine) are currently being used to treat attention deficit disorder (Kratochvil et al., 2003). Because of the involvement of DA in mesocorticolimbic pathways that subserve reward-and incentive...