Educational Inequality by Race in Brazil, 1982–2007: Structural Changes and Shifts in Racial Classification

Abstract

Despite overwhelming improvements in educational levels and opportunity during the past three decades, educational disadvantages associated with race still persist in Brazil. Using the nationally representative Pesquisa Nacional de Amostra por Domicílio (PNAD) data from 1982 and 1987 to 2007, this study investigates educational inequalities between white, pardo (mixed-race), and black Brazilians over the 25-year period. Although the educational advantage of whites persisted during this period, I find that the significance of race as it relates to education changed. By 2007, those identified as blacks and pardos became more similar in their schooling levels, whereas in the past, blacks had greater disadvantages. I test two possible explanations for this shift: structural changes and shifts in racial classification. I find evidence for both. I discuss the findings in light of the recent race-based affirmative action policies being implemented in Brazilian universities.

Race, Resources, and Representation: Evidence from Brazilian Politicians

“…Interestingly, we find little evidence that perceived social class "whitens" candidates, as some scholars have suggested. 44 In response to the closed-ended 41 Lawson et al 2010 42 The estimates move only slightly when we consider just politicians whose speech contained class-based messages: politicians who wore a suit and gave a "rich" speech were ranked at 2.4, while those who did not and gave a "poor" speech were again ranked at 3.0; again the difference of 0.6 is highly significant, with a t-statistic over 7. 43 Results (available on request) were similar for the open-ended question.…”

“…43 Results (available on request) were similar for the open-ended question. 44 See e.g., Azevedo 1996Azevedo (1953, though such findings may be somewhat dated; but see also Almeida (2007). Silva and Reis race question among subjects exposed to black candidates, 73 percent said the candidate was black when he wore a suit and 75 percent said so when he did not; the difference is not statistically significant.…”

At the intersection of place, race, and health in Brazil: Residential segregation and cardio-metabolic risk factors in the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil)

“…As a result, Brazil has the largest African-descended population outside the continent of Africa with Blacks and Browns numbering 15 million and 82 million, respectively in 2010, more than half (50.7%) of Brazil's 191 million inhabitants (IBGE, 2010). Secondly, though residential segregation in Brazil has most often been described and characterized as a by-product of "social class" as opposed to "race", documented racial inequalities in educational and job market opportunities (Marteleto, 2012) and racial discrimination (Antônio and Ribeiro, 2006;Hasenbalg, 1979;Telles and Lim, 1998) has resulted in a disproportionate number of nonWhites in economically segregated residential environments (Telles, 2004b). The over-representation of Blacks and Browns in these settings is a very visible manifestation of structural racism in Brazil that may implicate these settings as potential drivers of racial inequalities in health (Chor et al, 2015a).…”

Who Is Black, White, or Mixed Race? How Skin Color, Status, and Nation Shape Racial Classification in Latin America

“…Even in the case of Brazil itself, the scholarship reveals a dynamic racial classification system. While traditional race scholarship in Brazil showed that racial fluidity has allowed individuals to avoid identifying as black by effectively "whitening" themselves ðHarris 1952 ;Degler 1971;Twine 1997;Daniel 2006Þ, recent research shows a new pattern of "darkening" ðPaixão et al 2011 ;Marteleto 2012;Francis and Tannuri-Pianto 2013Þ, apparently in response to Brazil's new era of affirmative action and racial consciousness.…”