Ecological and Economic Sustainability of Non-Timber Forest Products in Post-Conflict Recovery: A Case Study of the Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) Resin Harvesting in Somaliland (Somalia)

Abstract

Non-timber forest products have often been held out as potential tools for conservation and sustainable development, but sustainability assessments are frequently difficult and time-consuming, especially in conflict areas. Thus, rapid assessments can be useful in providing a broad overview of the harvesting system in order to generate meaningful conservation or development recommendations. Here, we use rapid assessment methodology, including semi-structured interviews and direct observations, to examine the frankincense harvesting system in Somaliland in 2010 and again in 2016 and 2017. We identified significant levels of overharvesting, driven by a breakdown of the traditional management system. Demand for resin and resin prices increased dramatically from 2010 to 2017, at the same time as the tree populations were declining, resource tenure security was weakening, drug use was increasing, and the supply chain was becoming more complex. These factors combine to incentivize short-term unsustainable practices, and the lack of traceability and transparency prevents international buyers from meaningfully engaging with the system. However, new technologies and approaches being employed mean that buyers will soon be able to clearly direct their purchasing in order to incentivize sustainable practices and purchase resin in an ethical manner.

Conservation Assessment and Chemistry of Boswellia ogadensis, a Critically Endangered Frankincense Tree

“…The grazing can also cause damage to the trees’ bark, creating opportunities for boring insects to attack the tree. Boring beetles belonging to the Cerambycidae and Buprestidae families have been found to attack other Boswellia species, sometimes fatally [ 9 , 25 , 26 ]. However, few dead trees were observed, with most of the obvious insect damage occurring in branches or still-surviving trunks.…”

“…Many Boswellia species are facing significant sustainability challenges and probable or confirmed population declines due to a variety of factors [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Key threats to many species include grazing by ungulates (goats, cattle, camels), fire, land conversion for agriculture, improper or excessive harvesting of resin, and attacks by insects [ 7 , 8 ].…”

“…The combination of these threats can be significant; studies on Boswellia papyrifera in northern Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan have projected wide-scale population reductions of more than 70% on average within 25 years [ 8 ]. Other studies have noted sustainability concerns in B. sacra and B. frereana in Somaliland [ 9 ] and Oman [ 14 ], B. serrata in India [ 12 ], and B. elongata and other Boswellia species on Socotra island [ 10 , 11 ]. While studies have primarily focused on the major commercial species—with the exception of several studies conducted on the endemic Boswellia on Socotra island—rarer species likely face similar pressures, but at a greater threat level due to their small population sizes and geographically restricted ranges.…”

Evaluating the Potential of Boswellia rivae to Provide Sustainable Livelihood Benefits in Eastern Ethiopia

“…Frankincense supply chains are generally nontransparent, with a series of brokers or middle traders and relatively low prices paid directly to harvesters [ 18 ]. Collection is seasonal, typically taking place during the dry season, and many harvesters follow a mixed livelihood strategy, combining frankincense and other NTFP harvesting with livestock herding or other activities [ 23 , 24 ].…”

“…The frankincense trade is typically highly segmented by gender, with men harvesting the resin and women sorting it to remove bark and other impurities. While frankincense from many species has been internationally traded for millennia, two recent developments have prompted increased interest in the sustainability of sourcing frankincense: first, a significant increase in the demand for frankincense essential oil, spurred by the aromatherapy industry, and second, a series of studies indicating social concerns, unsustainable practices, and actual or potential population declines in some of the major commercial species [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 25 ]. Concerns over sustainability have also led some companies to use blends of multiple species, or to investigate the use of alternative species [ 14 ].…”