Early Production Recipes for Lead Antimonate Yellow in Italian Art*

Abstract

Lead antimonate yellow, or Naples Yellow, is one of the most common yellow pigments in Western European art. It was used mainly in the period from 1500 to 1850. During the 18th and 19th centuries, a whole range of production recipes was published. However, the early production history of the pigment is not well understood. In this paper, a study of two early production recipes is reported. Under the nomenclature of potters’ yellow, the recipes describe some production details of the pigment. Reconstructions of the historical lead antimonate yellow were made according to these sources. X‐ray powder diffraction (XRPD) was used to examine the reaction products. Our findings show that various types of lead antimonate yellow can be formed, following the descriptions given in the recipes. Some of these types, notably lead–tin antimonate, have been found in earlier studies of authentic works of art. No evidence was found for a locally limited use of this pigment, as has previously been suggested. Documentary and analytical evidence indicates that the knowledge on lead antimonate yellows originates from Middle Eastern ceramic and glass industries. It is argued that the know‐how on the production of lead antimonate yellows has been transferred via the migration of glass artists from the Eastern Mediterranean to Venice during the 15th century.

Raman scattering features of lead pyroantimonate compounds: implication for the non‐invasive identification of yellow pigments on ancient ceramics. Part II. In situ characterisation of Renaissance plates by portable micro‐Raman and XRF studies

“…Naples yellow] many add some tutia allesandrina, which is very good.). Although the term tutia could have several meanings, among which also tin oxide is indicated, [6] a long series of quotations in occidental historical sources of the 17th century [1] indicate that, very likely, it is referred to zinc oxide.…”

A Raman spectroscopic study of the Mapungubwe oblates: glass trade beads excavated at an Iron Age archaeological site in South Africa

“…In reconstruction experiments of some of these recipes (potter's yellow type II) it was noted that red Pb 3 O 4 forms as by-product when burnt lead, antimony oxide and ZnO are used as ingredients. 27,28 BaO and MnO are also present in the yellow and orange beads and were added intentionally, as it is not present in the basic glass of the other colour beads or related to the presence of Sn, Mn, Zn or Pb. Mn is known to act as a decolorant for iron impurities and it is most likely that it was added for this purpose.…”

Microanalytical characterization of decorations in handmade ancient floor tiles using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES)

“…Some studies regarding Naples Yellow have been published with particular attention given to the identification of the three elements (Pb, Sb, Sn) in oil painting and ceramic [20][21][22].…”